Guilan University Literary Theory and Criticism 2476-7387 6 2 2022 02 20 A Study of Ecofeminism in Reza Amirkhani’s Rahesh based on Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis A Study of Ecofeminism in Reza Amirkhani’s Rahesh based on Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis 5 27 4819 10.22124/naqd.2021.17491.2080 FA Zahra Esmaili Khoshmardan PhD Candidate in French Language and Literature, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran Negar Mazari Assistant Professor of French Language and Literature, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran Journal Article 2020 08 26 Environmental problems and the destruction of natural resources have become a significant concern in the modern era. The study of different aspects of these problems and their association with the fields of social sciences and humanities draw our attention to the important role mankind plays in increasing and decreasing the rate of environmental damages. Pierre Schoentjes, an environmental theorist, highlights the pivotal role of language and literature in teaching social responsibility to the next generation so as to achieve sustainable development and enhance environmental protection. Ecofeminism is an intellectual movement that sees a connection between the exploitation, degradation and empowerment of women in society; hence, the elimination of gender discrimination and inequality is directly associated with environmental protection. The present study endeavours to examine how components of ecofeminism are reflected in Reza Amirkhani’s novel Rahesh. Building on Norman Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis on the three levels of description, interpretation and explanation, we explore the relationship between environmental destruction and a tendency towards the dominance of men over women in a patriarchal system. The findings suggest that that a woman gives her body to the world to express her thought. The interplay between women’s body and the fabric of the world and the manifestation of the world in women is a symbolic message which represents how men are unjustifiably at the top of the power hierarchy in a patriarchal society. This, in turn, has led to ruthless exploitation of natural resources. Extended Abstract Introduction The growth in urban population and its environmental outcome can be regarded as among the most serious concerns of the present century. Literature, as an important factor in transferring human and cultural heritage, tries to alert humans to environmental problems. In Rahesh, Amirkhani tries to reflect urban architectural problems and their effects on the environment and highlight the role of women in protecting the environment. In the present article, by drawing upon Fairclough’s critical discourse analysis, attempt is made to examine ecofeminism and the reflection of its main components in Amirkani’s novel. Theoretical Framework According to Fairclough, discourse is the social reproduction of the relationship of hegemony, acting in an organized way in order to naturalize an ideology. Each discourse can be examined at three levels of description, vocabulary, and text. This kind of analysis tries to represent social and cultural changes and reveal the dialectical relations between signs (including language) and other components of social practices. Methodology In the present study, first, the process of selection of words and different kinds of coherence are examined in order to explain hidden ideologies and sources of power in a literary text. Different types of connection between the environment and women through the selection of words in the novel are then studied, and the formation of the ecofeminist discourse and how it is at work in this novel is examined based on gender discrimination. Discussion and Analysis The ecofeminist discourse of the text is an attempt to establish environmental justice. The discourse of the text indicates that traces of ideological patriarchal discourse can be found in the unjustifiable supremacy of men over women, animals and nature. The woman in Amirkhani’s novel plays the main role in the narration, but is unable to achieve her environmental goals due to the hegemony of men. Other contemporary novelists such as Zoya Pirzad, Raziyeh Ansari and Sara Salar have depicted the interaction between women and nature and criticized the supremacy of men. Rahesh is the story of women’s constant struggle to find out the meaning of life and a way to save urban environment. This novel establishes a connection between the status of women, their support for the preservation of the environment and their protest against social inequalities in Iranian society. Conclusion In the present study, ecofeminism has been examined in Amirkhani’s novel Rahesh through content analysis based on Fairclough’s approach. Through a juxtaposition of words connected, in different ways, with women, the environment, and pollution, the novelist has highlighted the relationship between them. The main theme of Rahesh is the connection between men’s supremacy over women and large-scale exploitation of the environment. Ecofeminism in the present novel is a tool to attract attention to the environment and the role women have played in protecting it. The novelist tries to remind us of the rights of women and the environment, and this novel is an attempt to challenge men’s authority. Select Bibliography Amirkhani, R. 1398 [2019]. Rahesh. Tehran: Ofoq. Ansari, R. 1392 [2013]. Trio Tehran. Tehran: Agah. Enayat, H. and Fathzadeh. H. 1388 [2009]. “Rouykardi Nazari beh Mafhoum-e Ecotourism.” Motale’at-e Jame’eh-shenasi 5: 45-64. Fairclough, N. 1387 [2008]. Tahlil-e Enteqadi-e Gofteman. Nayestani, M. et al (trans). Tehran: Markaz-e Motale’at va Tahqiqat-e Resaneh-ha. Gaard, G. 1993. “Living Interconnections with Animals and Nature.” In: id. (ed.). Ecofeminism: Women, Animals, Nature. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.1-12. Jahangiri, J. and Bandarrigizadeh. A. 1392 [2013]. “Zaban, Qodrat, Ideolozhi dar Rouykard-e Enteqadi-e Norman Fairclough beh Tahlil-e Gofteman.” Pazuhesh-e Siasat-e Nazari14: 57-82. Parsapour, Z. 1392 [2013]. Darbareh-ye Naqd-e Boumgara. Tehran: Institute for the Humanities and Cultural Studies. Pirzad, Z. 1383 [2004]. Adat Mikonim. Tehran: Markaz. Salar, S. 1388 [2009]. Ehtemalan Gom Shodeh-am. Tehran: Cheshmeh. Sheila, C. 1974. A Different Heaven and Earth: A Feminist Perspective on Religion. Valley Forge: Judson Press. Environmental problems and the destruction of natural resources have become a significant concern in the modern era. The study of different aspects of these problems and their association with the fields of social sciences and humanities draw our attention to the important role mankind plays in increasing and decreasing the rate of environmental damages. Pierre Schoentjes, an environmental theorist, highlights the pivotal role of language and literature in teaching social responsibility to the next generation so as to achieve sustainable development and enhance environmental protection. Ecofeminism is an intellectual movement that sees a connection between the exploitation, degradation and empowerment of women in society; hence, the elimination of gender discrimination and inequality is directly associated with environmental protection. The present study endeavours to examine how components of ecofeminism are reflected in Reza Amirkhani’s novel Rahesh. Building on Norman Fairclough’s Critical Discourse Analysis on the three levels of description, interpretation and explanation, we explore the relationship between environmental destruction and a tendency towards the dominance of men over women in a patriarchal system. The findings suggest that that a woman gives her body to the world to express her thought. The interplay between women’s body and the fabric of the world and the manifestation of the world in women is a symbolic message which represents how men are unjustifiably at the top of the power hierarchy in a patriarchal society. This, in turn, has led to ruthless exploitation of natural resources. Extended Abstract Introduction The growth in urban population and its environmental outcome can be regarded as among the most serious concerns of the present century. Literature, as an important factor in transferring human and cultural heritage, tries to alert humans to environmental problems. In Rahesh, Amirkhani tries to reflect urban architectural problems and their effects on the environment and highlight the role of women in protecting the environment. In the present article, by drawing upon Fairclough’s critical discourse analysis, attempt is made to examine ecofeminism and the reflection of its main components in Amirkani’s novel. Theoretical Framework According to Fairclough, discourse is the social reproduction of the relationship of hegemony, acting in an organized way in order to naturalize an ideology. Each discourse can be examined at three levels of description, vocabulary, and text. This kind of analysis tries to represent social and cultural changes and reveal the dialectical relations between signs (including language) and other components of social practices. Methodology In the present study, first, the process of selection of words and different kinds of coherence are examined in order to explain hidden ideologies and sources of power in a literary text. Different types of connection between the environment and women through the selection of words in the novel are then studied, and the formation of the ecofeminist discourse and how it is at work in this novel is examined based on gender discrimination. Discussion and Analysis The ecofeminist discourse of the text is an attempt to establish environmental justice. The discourse of the text indicates that traces of ideological patriarchal discourse can be found in the unjustifiable supremacy of men over women, animals and nature. The woman in Amirkhani’s novel plays the main role in the narration, but is unable to achieve her environmental goals due to the hegemony of men. Other contemporary novelists such as Zoya Pirzad, Raziyeh Ansari and Sara Salar have depicted the interaction between women and nature and criticized the supremacy of men. Rahesh is the story of women’s constant struggle to find out the meaning of life and a way to save urban environment. This novel establishes a connection between the status of women, their support for the preservation of the environment and their protest against social inequalities in Iranian society. Conclusion In the present study, ecofeminism has been examined in Amirkhani’s novel Rahesh through content analysis based on Fairclough’s approach. Through a juxtaposition of words connected, in different ways, with women, the environment, and pollution, the novelist has highlighted the relationship between them. The main theme of Rahesh is the connection between men’s supremacy over women and large-scale exploitation of the environment. Ecofeminism in the present novel is a tool to attract attention to the environment and the role women have played in protecting it. The novelist tries to remind us of the rights of women and the environment, and this novel is an attempt to challenge men’s authority. Select Bibliography Amirkhani, R. 1398 [2019]. Rahesh. Tehran: Ofoq. Ansari, R. 1392 [2013]. Trio Tehran. Tehran: Agah. Enayat, H. and Fathzadeh. H. 1388 [2009]. “Rouykardi Nazari beh Mafhoum-e Ecotourism.” Motale’at-e Jame’eh-shenasi 5: 45-64. Fairclough, N. 1387 [2008]. Tahlil-e Enteqadi-e Gofteman. Nayestani, M. et al (trans). Tehran: Markaz-e Motale’at va Tahqiqat-e Resaneh-ha. Gaard, G. 1993. “Living Interconnections with Animals and Nature.” In: id. (ed.). Ecofeminism: Women, Animals, Nature. Philadelphia: Temple University Press.1-12. Jahangiri, J. and Bandarrigizadeh. A. 1392 [2013]. “Zaban, Qodrat, Ideolozhi dar Rouykard-e Enteqadi-e Norman Fairclough beh Tahlil-e Gofteman.” Pazuhesh-e Siasat-e Nazari14: 57-82. Parsapour, Z. 1392 [2013]. Darbareh-ye Naqd-e Boumgara. Tehran: Institute for the Humanities and Cultural Studies. Pirzad, Z. 1383 [2004]. Adat Mikonim. Tehran: Markaz. Salar, S. 1388 [2009]. Ehtemalan Gom Shodeh-am. Tehran: Cheshmeh. Sheila, C. 1974. A Different Heaven and Earth: A Feminist Perspective on Religion. Valley Forge: Judson Press.

https://naqd.guilan.ac.ir/article_4819_f0d1f789384bc2e63c4b7ab3a55785dc.pdf

Guilan University Literary Theory and Criticism 2476-7387 6 2 2022 02 20 From Gadamer’s Philosophical Hermeneutics to Derrida’s Deconstruction From Gadamer’s Philosophical Hermeneutics to Derrida’s Deconstruction 29 50 4240 10.22124/naqd.2020.16308.1980 FA Farzad Baloo Associate Professor of Persian Language and Literature, University of Mazandaran, Babolsar, Iran Journal Article 2020 04 19 In many studies, the philosophical hermeneutics of Gadamer has been contrasted with Derrida’s deconstruction so as to emphasize their differences and oppositions. Pointing out the conceptual congruence between these two important contemporary interpretative currents, the present study, while acknowledging the differences in the works and writings of Gadamer and Derrida, empathetically attempts to reflect on the similarity and convergence of the singularities of their thought. Therefore, this paper discusses and explores Gadamer’s and Derrida’s views on concepts such as language and sign, truth and meaning, interpretation, and method, and attempts to show that the two thinkers come together in terms of intellectual relations, as illustrated by principles such as: Being is divisive and different in itself, the rejection of the transcendental signified, the emergence of the most self-sufficient language in writing, the risk of the creation of ambiguity and deception by speech and writing, the disbelief in a unified interpretation and truth, the concrete, and fluid nature of understanding, the creation of meaning, and the rejection of method. Thus, this study attempts to rectify some of the common theoretical misconceptions about philosophical hermeneutics and deconstruction. Extended Abstract Introduction Philosophical hermeneutics mainly deals with descriptions of understanding. Derrida’s deconstruction is predominantly aimed at the critique of self-consciousness in the tradition of Western philosophy. In the presence/absence binary opposition, Derrida pays more attention to absence and draws upon deconstruction to investigate presence and absence in the process of reading a text. Most studies on the philosophical hermeneutics and deconstruction focus on the differences between these two traditions. However, the present study examines the similarities between them based on the assumption that their critical views on metaphysical concepts concerning truth, meaning and method, complete each other. Theoretical Framework The present paper examines the differences and similarities between the ideas of Derrida and Gadamer on important concepts such as language and sign, truth and meaning, and interpretation and method in order to offer a more comprehensive understanding of these concepts. Methodology The present article utilizes the descriptive-analytical approach to study and compare the ideas of Gamader and Derrida on interpretation. Discussion and Analysis Derrida analyzed language as system of signs and disconnected signifiers and considers the signifier and the signified separate. However, Gadamer believes that language is more than a system of signs, and the signifier and the signified are inseparable. About the concepts of truth and meaning, Gadamer and Derrida both believe in the creation of meaning rather than figuring it out. Derrida believes that there is no single truth, and meanings develop in endless interactions between signifiers, resulting in the cycle of meaning being constantly active. Gadamer holds that the text is diachronic and a complete, absolute meaning can never be identified for it because the understanding of a text is a historical event. Gadamer is mainly concerned with describing what happens in the act of understanding rather than offering a method for understanding. Likewise, Derrida avoids offering a method for understanding and questions the application of deconstruction as a literary approach. Conclusion Despite differences, Gadamer and Derrida have considerable similarities regarding language and text. The findings of the present study show that deconstruction is in many ways in line with hermeneutics rather than against it. The analysis of the ideas of Gadamer and Derrida on concepts such as truth, meaning and interpretation shows that the Derridean deconstruction does not aim to negate truth, meaning and interpretation but is rather in some respects close to the ideas of Gadamer. Select Bibliography Bernstein, R. 1381 [2002]. “Manzumeh-ye Hermeneutic: Nazaryeh-ye Enteqadi va Shaludehshekani.” E. Norouzi (trans.). Zibashenakht 7: 47-58. Derrida, J. 1390 [2011]. Darbareh-ye Gramatolozhi. M. Parsa (trans.). Tehran: Rokhdad. Derrida, J. 1396 [2017]. Neveshtar va Tafavot. A. Rashidian (trans.). Tehran: Ney. Derrida, J. 1998. Letter to a Japanese Friend. D. Wood and R. Bernasconi (eds.). In: Derrida and Differance. Warwick: Parousia Press. pp. 1-5. Gadamer, H. G. 1976. Philosophical Hermeneutics. D. E. Linge (trans.). Berkeley: Berkeley University Press. Gadamer, H. G. 2004. Truth and Method. J. Weinsheimer and D. G. Marshal. (trans.). New York: Continuum. Grondin, J. 1391 [2012]. Hermeneutic. M. Abolqasemi. Tehran: Mahi. Michelfelder, D. and Palmer, R. 1989. Dialogue and Deconstruction: The Gadamer-Derrida Encounter. New York: State University of New York Press. Norris, Ch. 1385 [2006]. Shaloudehshekani. P. Yazdanjou (trans.). Tehran: Markaz. Webster, R. 1373 [1994]. “Jacques Derrida va Vasazi-ye Matn.” A. Barani (trans.). Organun 4: 251-256. In many studies, the philosophical hermeneutics of Gadamer has been contrasted with Derrida’s deconstruction so as to emphasize their differences and oppositions. Pointing out the conceptual congruence between these two important contemporary interpretative currents, the present study, while acknowledging the differences in the works and writings of Gadamer and Derrida, empathetically attempts to reflect on the similarity and convergence of the singularities of their thought. Therefore, this paper discusses and explores Gadamer’s and Derrida’s views on concepts such as language and sign, truth and meaning, interpretation, and method, and attempts to show that the two thinkers come together in terms of intellectual relations, as illustrated by principles such as: Being is divisive and different in itself, the rejection of the transcendental signified, the emergence of the most self-sufficient language in writing, the risk of the creation of ambiguity and deception by speech and writing, the disbelief in a unified interpretation and truth, the concrete, and fluid nature of understanding, the creation of meaning, and the rejection of method. Thus, this study attempts to rectify some of the common theoretical misconceptions about philosophical hermeneutics and deconstruction. Extended Abstract Introduction Philosophical hermeneutics mainly deals with descriptions of understanding. Derrida’s deconstruction is predominantly aimed at the critique of self-consciousness in the tradition of Western philosophy. In the presence/absence binary opposition, Derrida pays more attention to absence and draws upon deconstruction to investigate presence and absence in the process of reading a text. Most studies on the philosophical hermeneutics and deconstruction focus on the differences between these two traditions. However, the present study examines the similarities between them based on the assumption that their critical views on metaphysical concepts concerning truth, meaning and method, complete each other. Theoretical Framework The present paper examines the differences and similarities between the ideas of Derrida and Gadamer on important concepts such as language and sign, truth and meaning, and interpretation and method in order to offer a more comprehensive understanding of these concepts. Methodology The present article utilizes the descriptive-analytical approach to study and compare the ideas of Gamader and Derrida on interpretation. Discussion and Analysis Derrida analyzed language as system of signs and disconnected signifiers and considers the signifier and the signified separate. However, Gadamer believes that language is more than a system of signs, and the signifier and the signified are inseparable. About the concepts of truth and meaning, Gadamer and Derrida both believe in the creation of meaning rather than figuring it out. Derrida believes that there is no single truth, and meanings develop in endless interactions between signifiers, resulting in the cycle of meaning being constantly active. Gadamer holds that the text is diachronic and a complete, absolute meaning can never be identified for it because the understanding of a text is a historical event. Gadamer is mainly concerned with describing what happens in the act of understanding rather than offering a method for understanding. Likewise, Derrida avoids offering a method for understanding and questions the application of deconstruction as a literary approach. Conclusion Despite differences, Gadamer and Derrida have considerable similarities regarding language and text. The findings of the present study show that deconstruction is in many ways in line with hermeneutics rather than against it. The analysis of the ideas of Gadamer and Derrida on concepts such as truth, meaning and interpretation shows that the Derridean deconstruction does not aim to negate truth, meaning and interpretation but is rather in some respects close to the ideas of Gadamer. Select Bibliography Bernstein, R. 1381 [2002]. “Manzumeh-ye Hermeneutic: Nazaryeh-ye Enteqadi va Shaludehshekani.” E. Norouzi (trans.). Zibashenakht 7: 47-58. Derrida, J. 1390 [2011]. Darbareh-ye Gramatolozhi. M. Parsa (trans.). Tehran: Rokhdad. Derrida, J. 1396 [2017]. Neveshtar va Tafavot. A. Rashidian (trans.). Tehran: Ney. Derrida, J. 1998. Letter to a Japanese Friend. D. Wood and R. Bernasconi (eds.). In: Derrida and Differance. Warwick: Parousia Press. pp. 1-5. Gadamer, H. G. 1976. Philosophical Hermeneutics. D. E. Linge (trans.). Berkeley: Berkeley University Press. Gadamer, H. G. 2004. Truth and Method. J. Weinsheimer and D. G. Marshal. (trans.). New York: Continuum. Grondin, J. 1391 [2012]. Hermeneutic. M. Abolqasemi. Tehran: Mahi. Michelfelder, D. and Palmer, R. 1989. Dialogue and Deconstruction: The Gadamer-Derrida Encounter. New York: State University of New York Press. Norris, Ch. 1385 [2006]. Shaloudehshekani. P. Yazdanjou (trans.). Tehran: Markaz. Webster, R. 1373 [1994]. “Jacques Derrida va Vasazi-ye Matn.” A. Barani (trans.). Organun 4: 251-256.

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Guilan University Literary Theory and Criticism 2476-7387 6 2 2022 02 20 Love, One Concept with Three Metaphorical Perceptions: An Analysis of the System of Conceptual Metaphors in Sawanih al-Ushaq Love, One Concept with Three Metaphorical Perceptions: An Analysis of the System of Conceptual Metaphors in Sawanih al-Ushaq 51 74 5126 10.22124/naqd.2021.17158.2055 FA Samira Bakhtyarinasab PhD in Persian Language and Literature, Shiraz University, Iran Khairollah Mahmoodi Associate Professor of Persian Language and Literature, Shiraz University, Iran Journal Article 2020 07 21 As metaphors are cognitively originated, examining a text’s conceptual metaphors yields a new understanding of its author’s cognition. Therefore, an analysis of the relationship between the conceptual metaphors in a text and the structure arising from those metaphors leads to a more precise understanding and a better explanation of the text, and facilitates the analysis of its semantic structure and its author’s worldview. Thus, the present article attempts to answer three key questions: What are the most important conceptual metaphors in Sawanih al-Ushaq? What relationships do exist between these metaphors? What are the characteristics of the structure arising from these metaphors? In an effort to answer these questions inductively, the conceptual metaphors in each chapter are separately examined and the most important metaphors in the text are identified based on the two criteria of ‘frequency’ and ‘position in the structure of metaphors’. The analysis shows that the conceptual domain of ‘love’ is the most important abstract conceptual domain which is comprehended with the aid of the conceptual domains of ‘bird’, ‘mirror’, ‘plant’, ‘derivation’, ‘sun’, ‘king’, and ‘destruction’. Among them, destruction has a special place as it can be used in order to comprehend the ultimate stage of love: annihilation. Destruction, as a megametaphor, is embodied by the conceptual domains of ‘intoxication’, ‘fire’, ‘war’, and ‘devouring’. Finally, the most significant conceptual metaphors in Sawanih al-Ushaq are: ‘love is the eternal part of human existence’; ‘love is a mirror’; and ‘love is destruction’. Extended Abstract Introduction A study of conceptual metaphors in Persian literature from the early centuries can contribute to a better understanding of the complexities of modern literature. Conceptual metaphors integrate concepts into texts and, over time, transfer them from one text to another. Love is one of the most important metaphorical concepts in Persian mystical literature and Sawanih al-Ushaq is the first mystical text in Persian about love. This work had a great influence on Nagouri’s Lawayih, Araqi’s Lama’at and Jami’s Lawayih. Theoretical Framework In traditional rhetoric, metaphor is not related to the essence of language and thus has a secondary role. However, in the 1980s, Lakoff and Johnson developed the idea of conceptual metaphor and challenged the traditional attitude toward metaphors. In the present study, the idea of conceptual metaphor is examined in Sawanih al-Ushaq. Methodology The present study seeks to examine the main conceptual metaphors in Sawanih al-Ushaq. For this purpose, all the conceptual metaphors are identified using the inductive method. Then, the relationship between these metaphors is analyzed in order to disclose the conceptual metaphors in the text. Discussion and Analysis Love is the main objective conceptual field in Sawanih al-Ushaq, which has been used to contribute to the understanding of the pre-eternity of being. This metaphorical understanding revolves around three main issues: 1. The entry of the concept of love into Islamic mysticism, under the influence of Neo-Platonism, 2. Love poems that Muslim mystics used in their sermons, and 3. The concept of “union”, as an important component of the pre-eternity of human beings. In Sawanih al-Ushaq, love is sometimes a subjective issue and is understood through more concrete concepts, such as “king”, “desire”, “bird”, “mirror”, and “fire”. Conclusion The conceptual metaphors in Sawanih al-Ushaq have a multi-layered relationship with one another. This relationship is either cognitive or a relationship between mega-metaphors and micro-metaphors. The cognitive relationship includes the connection between love and other metaphors of the text and the relationship between the king and war. The conceptual field of desolation is a mega-metaphor. The most important metaphors of the texts are “union is love”, “love is destruction” and “love is a mirror”. Understanding union as love paves the way for all the conceptual metaphors of the text. “Effacement is desolation” is another major conceptual metaphor and has brought about a kind of coherence for the metaphorical structure, and, eventually, all metaphors of the text, in a transcendental process, turn into “love is a mirror”. Select Bibliography Beaucorps, M. 1394 [2015]. Ramz-ha-ye Zendeh-ye Jan. J. Sattari (trans.). Tehran: Markaz. Fotouhi Roudma’jani, M. 1390 [2011]. Sabkshenasi-e Nazaryeh-ha, Rouykard-ha va Ravesh-ha. Tehran: Sokhan. Ghazzali, A. 1381 [2002]. Resaleh-ye Sawanih va Resaleh-i dar Mo’ezeh. J. Nourbakhsh (ed.). Tehran: Yalda Qalam. Homayi, J. 1374 [1995]. Fonoun va Balaghat-e Adabi. Tehran: Negah. Ibn Arabi, 1376 [1997]. Shajar al-Kown. G. Saeedi (trans.). Tehran: Tariq ul-Kamal. Kouchesh, Zolton. 1393 [2014]. Moqaddameh-i Karbordi bar Este’areh. Sh. Pourebrahim. Tehran: SAMT. Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. 1394 [2015]. Este’areh-hayi keh ba Anha Zendegi Mikonim. H. Aqaebrahimi. Tehran: Elm. Pourjavadi, N. 1387 [2009]. Badeh-ye Eshq. Tehran: Karnameh. Safavi, K. 1379 [2000]. Daramadi bar Ma’ni-shenasi. Tehran: Soureh. Shafi’i Kadkani, M. R. 1350 [1971]. Sovar-e Khial dar She’r-e Farsi. Tehran: Nil. As metaphors are cognitively originated, examining a text’s conceptual metaphors yields a new understanding of its author’s cognition. Therefore, an analysis of the relationship between the conceptual metaphors in a text and the structure arising from those metaphors leads to a more precise understanding and a better explanation of the text, and facilitates the analysis of its semantic structure and its author’s worldview. Thus, the present article attempts to answer three key questions: What are the most important conceptual metaphors in Sawanih al-Ushaq? What relationships do exist between these metaphors? What are the characteristics of the structure arising from these metaphors? In an effort to answer these questions inductively, the conceptual metaphors in each chapter are separately examined and the most important metaphors in the text are identified based on the two criteria of ‘frequency’ and ‘position in the structure of metaphors’. The analysis shows that the conceptual domain of ‘love’ is the most important abstract conceptual domain which is comprehended with the aid of the conceptual domains of ‘bird’, ‘mirror’, ‘plant’, ‘derivation’, ‘sun’, ‘king’, and ‘destruction’. Among them, destruction has a special place as it can be used in order to comprehend the ultimate stage of love: annihilation. Destruction, as a megametaphor, is embodied by the conceptual domains of ‘intoxication’, ‘fire’, ‘war’, and ‘devouring’. Finally, the most significant conceptual metaphors in Sawanih al-Ushaq are: ‘love is the eternal part of human existence’; ‘love is a mirror’; and ‘love is destruction’. Extended Abstract Introduction A study of conceptual metaphors in Persian literature from the early centuries can contribute to a better understanding of the complexities of modern literature. Conceptual metaphors integrate concepts into texts and, over time, transfer them from one text to another. Love is one of the most important metaphorical concepts in Persian mystical literature and Sawanih al-Ushaq is the first mystical text in Persian about love. This work had a great influence on Nagouri’s Lawayih, Araqi’s Lama’at and Jami’s Lawayih. Theoretical Framework In traditional rhetoric, metaphor is not related to the essence of language and thus has a secondary role. However, in the 1980s, Lakoff and Johnson developed the idea of conceptual metaphor and challenged the traditional attitude toward metaphors. In the present study, the idea of conceptual metaphor is examined in Sawanih al-Ushaq. Methodology The present study seeks to examine the main conceptual metaphors in Sawanih al-Ushaq. For this purpose, all the conceptual metaphors are identified using the inductive method. Then, the relationship between these metaphors is analyzed in order to disclose the conceptual metaphors in the text. Discussion and Analysis Love is the main objective conceptual field in Sawanih al-Ushaq, which has been used to contribute to the understanding of the pre-eternity of being. This metaphorical understanding revolves around three main issues: 1. The entry of the concept of love into Islamic mysticism, under the influence of Neo-Platonism, 2. Love poems that Muslim mystics used in their sermons, and 3. The concept of “union”, as an important component of the pre-eternity of human beings. In Sawanih al-Ushaq, love is sometimes a subjective issue and is understood through more concrete concepts, such as “king”, “desire”, “bird”, “mirror”, and “fire”. Conclusion The conceptual metaphors in Sawanih al-Ushaq have a multi-layered relationship with one another. This relationship is either cognitive or a relationship between mega-metaphors and micro-metaphors. The cognitive relationship includes the connection between love and other metaphors of the text and the relationship between the king and war. The conceptual field of desolation is a mega-metaphor. The most important metaphors of the texts are “union is love”, “love is destruction” and “love is a mirror”. Understanding union as love paves the way for all the conceptual metaphors of the text. “Effacement is desolation” is another major conceptual metaphor and has brought about a kind of coherence for the metaphorical structure, and, eventually, all metaphors of the text, in a transcendental process, turn into “love is a mirror”. Select Bibliography Beaucorps, M. 1394 [2015]. Ramz-ha-ye Zendeh-ye Jan. J. Sattari (trans.). Tehran: Markaz. Fotouhi Roudma’jani, M. 1390 [2011]. Sabkshenasi-e Nazaryeh-ha, Rouykard-ha va Ravesh-ha. Tehran: Sokhan. Ghazzali, A. 1381 [2002]. Resaleh-ye Sawanih va Resaleh-i dar Mo’ezeh. J. Nourbakhsh (ed.). Tehran: Yalda Qalam. Homayi, J. 1374 [1995]. Fonoun va Balaghat-e Adabi. Tehran: Negah. Ibn Arabi, 1376 [1997]. Shajar al-Kown. G. Saeedi (trans.). Tehran: Tariq ul-Kamal. Kouchesh, Zolton. 1393 [2014]. Moqaddameh-i Karbordi bar Este’areh. Sh. Pourebrahim. Tehran: SAMT. Lakoff, G. and Johnson, M. 1394 [2015]. Este’areh-hayi keh ba Anha Zendegi Mikonim. H. Aqaebrahimi. Tehran: Elm. Pourjavadi, N. 1387 [2009]. Badeh-ye Eshq. Tehran: Karnameh. Safavi, K. 1379 [2000]. Daramadi bar Ma’ni-shenasi. Tehran: Soureh. Shafi’i Kadkani, M. R. 1350 [1971]. Sovar-e Khial dar She’r-e Farsi. Tehran: Nil.

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Guilan University Literary Theory and Criticism 2476-7387 6 2 2022 02 20 A Lacanian Reading of the “Story of King Shahryar and His Brother Shah Zaman” A Lacanian Reading of the “Story of King Shahryar and His Brother Shah Zaman” 75 98 4862 10.22124/naqd.2020.14317.1821 FA Abbas Barari Jirandehi PhD Candidate in Persian Language and Literature, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran Ali Safayi Sangari Professor of Persian Language and Literature, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran Alireza Nikoui Associate Professor of Persian Language and Literature, University of Guilan, Rasht, Iran Journal Article 2019 09 04 Interdisciplinary studies and psychoanalytic criticism have recently opened up new horizons for researchers. The Thousand and One Nights has been evaluated in various ways so far, but what has been overlooked is the psychoanalytical dimension of the stories. The context of the “Story of King Shahryar and His Brother Shah Zaman” illustrates a problem unique to civilization, whose examination can provide the readers with insight into latent meanings. Although Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, used to read the works of poets and writers, including fantastic and suprarealist stories and claimed that he and those writers were both inspired by the same origin, albeit in two different ways (Shariat Kashani, 2014: 13), psychoanalytic criticism does not have the prominent place it deserves in contemporary literature, or is harshly criticized by those who do not support theorists such as Freud, Lacan, and others. The analytical power of psychoanalysis and its amenity to interpretation led us to decipher the core story of The Thousand and One Nights according to Lacan’s theories. Despite their difficulty, Lacan’s theories contain neither the misunderstandings around Freud’s concepts nor the sense of superiority one finds in Jung’s antirealist and mystical psychology. This paper deals with the origins of the story of Shahryar and his brother Shah Zaman from a Lacanian perspective. Extended Abstract Introduction Psychoanalysis can help us decipher meanings hidden in texts. Although psychoanalysis and fairy tales and legends are closely connected, The Thousand and One Nights has rarely been psychoanalytically analyzed. The present study aims to examine the “Story of King Shahryar and His Brother Shah Zaman” in The Thousand and One Nights based on Lacan’s ideas. The main theme of the story, which can be considered a reflection of the human psychological structure, is an expression of a process common to all human beings. Shahryar commonly symbolizes collective consciousness and his derangement is caused by an ego that does not function in coordination with the psyche. Shah Zaman’s sophistication does not suffice here as human behavior is lacking in him. Theoretical Framework According to Lacan, human psyche is composed of the symbolic, the imaginary and the real, which are in interaction with each other in the becoming of being. To reveal the imaginary attractions and the symbolic law governing them, Lacan focuses on the distinction between the real and reality (with a symbolic structure). In the “Story of King Shahryar and His Brother Shah Zaman,” King Shahryar and his brother Shah Zaman face the real through a trauma. With the presence of Shahryar the real returns and emerges through the symbolic. Shahryar has to discover the knowledge hidden in the real. Scheherazade teaches him how to face the real by avoiding logic and relying or emotions. Methodology The library-based research method has been used in the present study to collect the data and a descriptive-analytical approach has been adopted to conduct a psychoanalytical analysis of the data. Discussion and Analysis King Shahrayr and his brother, after learning about the affairs of their wives, realize that the collapse of their symbolic world should not lead to a “lack of reality” in them. They take two different paths: Shah Zaman leads an ascetic life and Shahryar tries to kill women. From a Lacanian viewpoint, their mental status is completely different. What Shah Zaman does is to prevent the enjoyment of the other; however, Shahryar tries to ensure the enjoyment of the other, making him never experience the scruples of a psychopath. He assumes that he helps the other derive great enjoyment. The psychopath (Shah Zaman) is the object of the enjoyment of the other and is controlled by the other, while the deviant person serves the other. Conclusion Shahryar’s attitude toward the other is the same attitude the other adopts toward Shahryar. Here, the deviant person, i.e., Shahryar, is the absolute subject that treats the other’s body as an instrument to satisfy his own desire. Scheherazade, by avoiding logic, teaches Shahryar how to avoid encountering the real. Like a psychoanalyst, Scheherazade criticizes the internal and psychological reality of Shahrayr by telling stories, proving the reality that in our unconscious we are all murderers. Scheherazade tries to prove Shahryar’s innocence, which was a fulfilled hallucination. With the help of the real, Scheherazade proves what would be otherwise the projection of guilt onto another person. In other words, Scheherazade proved that the murdered women were all guilty. Select Bibliography Eshaqiyan, J. 1396 [2017]. Boutiqa-ye No va Hezar-o-Yek Shab. Tehran: Faraz. Fink, B. 1397 [2018]. Suzheh-ye Lakani bayn-e Zaban va Jouissence. M. A. Jafari (trans.). Tehran: Qoqnous. Freud, S. 1395 [2016]. Tali az Tasavir-e Shekasteh. Sh. Vaqfipour (trans.). Tehran: Cheshmeh. Homer. S. 1388 [2009]. Jacques Lacan. M. A. Jafari and M. A. Tahayi (trans.). Tehran: Qoqnous. Lacan, J. 1397 [2018]. Ezterab: Bazbini-e Vaz’e Obzheh. S. Rastegar (trans.). Tehran: Pendar Taban. Lacan, J. 1397 [2018]. Shekl-e Obzheh-ye a. S. Rastegar (trans.). Tehran: Pendar Taban. Stavrakakis, Y. 1392 [2013]. Lacan va Amr-e Siasi. M. A. Jafari (trans.) Tehran: Qoqnus. Tasouji, A. 1383 [2004]. Hezar-o-Yek Shab. Tehran: Hermes. Von Franz. M. L. 1397 [2018]. Paryaneh-ha: Zan dar Afsaneh-ye Paryan. M. Safdarzadeh. Tehran: Roshangaran va Motale’at-e Zanan. Žižek, S. 1388 [2009]. Kazh Negaristan. M. Eslami and S. Najafi (trans.). Tehran: Rokhdad-e No. Interdisciplinary studies and psychoanalytic criticism have recently opened up new horizons for researchers. The Thousand and One Nights has been evaluated in various ways so far, but what has been overlooked is the psychoanalytical dimension of the stories. The context of the “Story of King Shahryar and His Brother Shah Zaman” illustrates a problem unique to civilization, whose examination can provide the readers with insight into latent meanings. Although Freud, the father of psychoanalysis, used to read the works of poets and writers, including fantastic and suprarealist stories and claimed that he and those writers were both inspired by the same origin, albeit in two different ways (Shariat Kashani, 2014: 13), psychoanalytic criticism does not have the prominent place it deserves in contemporary literature, or is harshly criticized by those who do not support theorists such as Freud, Lacan, and others. The analytical power of psychoanalysis and its amenity to interpretation led us to decipher the core story of The Thousand and One Nights according to Lacan’s theories. Despite their difficulty, Lacan’s theories contain neither the misunderstandings around Freud’s concepts nor the sense of superiority one finds in Jung’s antirealist and mystical psychology. This paper deals with the origins of the story of Shahryar and his brother Shah Zaman from a Lacanian perspective. Extended Abstract Introduction Psychoanalysis can help us decipher meanings hidden in texts. Although psychoanalysis and fairy tales and legends are closely connected, The Thousand and One Nights has rarely been psychoanalytically analyzed. The present study aims to examine the “Story of King Shahryar and His Brother Shah Zaman” in The Thousand and One Nights based on Lacan’s ideas. The main theme of the story, which can be considered a reflection of the human psychological structure, is an expression of a process common to all human beings. Shahryar commonly symbolizes collective consciousness and his derangement is caused by an ego that does not function in coordination with the psyche. Shah Zaman’s sophistication does not suffice here as human behavior is lacking in him. Theoretical Framework According to Lacan, human psyche is composed of the symbolic, the imaginary and the real, which are in interaction with each other in the becoming of being. To reveal the imaginary attractions and the symbolic law governing them, Lacan focuses on the distinction between the real and reality (with a symbolic structure). In the “Story of King Shahryar and His Brother Shah Zaman,” King Shahryar and his brother Shah Zaman face the real through a trauma. With the presence of Shahryar the real returns and emerges through the symbolic. Shahryar has to discover the knowledge hidden in the real. Scheherazade teaches him how to face the real by avoiding logic and relying or emotions. Methodology The library-based research method has been used in the present study to collect the data and a descriptive-analytical approach has been adopted to conduct a psychoanalytical analysis of the data. Discussion and Analysis King Shahrayr and his brother, after learning about the affairs of their wives, realize that the collapse of their symbolic world should not lead to a “lack of reality” in them. They take two different paths: Shah Zaman leads an ascetic life and Shahryar tries to kill women. From a Lacanian viewpoint, their mental status is completely different. What Shah Zaman does is to prevent the enjoyment of the other; however, Shahryar tries to ensure the enjoyment of the other, making him never experience the scruples of a psychopath. He assumes that he helps the other derive great enjoyment. The psychopath (Shah Zaman) is the object of the enjoyment of the other and is controlled by the other, while the deviant person serves the other. Conclusion Shahryar’s attitude toward the other is the same attitude the other adopts toward Shahryar. Here, the deviant person, i.e., Shahryar, is the absolute subject that treats the other’s body as an instrument to satisfy his own desire. Scheherazade, by avoiding logic, teaches Shahryar how to avoid encountering the real. Like a psychoanalyst, Scheherazade criticizes the internal and psychological reality of Shahrayr by telling stories, proving the reality that in our unconscious we are all murderers. Scheherazade tries to prove Shahryar’s innocence, which was a fulfilled hallucination. With the help of the real, Scheherazade proves what would be otherwise the projection of guilt onto another person. In other words, Scheherazade proved that the murdered women were all guilty. Select Bibliography Eshaqiyan, J. 1396 [2017]. Boutiqa-ye No va Hezar-o-Yek Shab. Tehran: Faraz. Fink, B. 1397 [2018]. Suzheh-ye Lakani bayn-e Zaban va Jouissence. M. A. Jafari (trans.). Tehran: Qoqnous. Freud, S. 1395 [2016]. Tali az Tasavir-e Shekasteh. Sh. Vaqfipour (trans.). Tehran: Cheshmeh. Homer. S. 1388 [2009]. Jacques Lacan. M. A. Jafari and M. A. Tahayi (trans.). Tehran: Qoqnous. Lacan, J. 1397 [2018]. Ezterab: Bazbini-e Vaz’e Obzheh. S. Rastegar (trans.). Tehran: Pendar Taban. Lacan, J. 1397 [2018]. Shekl-e Obzheh-ye a. S. Rastegar (trans.). Tehran: Pendar Taban. Stavrakakis, Y. 1392 [2013]. Lacan va Amr-e Siasi. M. A. Jafari (trans.) Tehran: Qoqnus. Tasouji, A. 1383 [2004]. Hezar-o-Yek Shab. Tehran: Hermes. Von Franz. M. L. 1397 [2018]. Paryaneh-ha: Zan dar Afsaneh-ye Paryan. M. Safdarzadeh. Tehran: Roshangaran va Motale’at-e Zanan. Žižek, S. 1388 [2009]. Kazh Negaristan. M. Eslami and S. Najafi (trans.). Tehran: Rokhdad-e No.

https://naqd.guilan.ac.ir/article_4862_40be4791452570bb4c07d7aa9eb38490.pdf

Guilan University Literary Theory and Criticism 2476-7387 6 2 2022 02 20 A Critique of ‘Negative Aesthetics’ in Azar, Shahdokht, Parviz and the Others A Critique of ‘Negative Aesthetics’ in Azar, Shahdokht, Parviz and the Others 99 118 5365 10.22124/naqd.2022.17063.2045 FA Elnaz Khojasteh Zonoozi PhD in Persian Language and Literature, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran Mahboubeh Mobasheri Associate Professor of Persian Language and Literature, Alzahra University, Tehran, Iran Journal Article 2020 07 11 As an important and comprehensive critical method, “critical aesthetics” of the Frankfurt School, deals with art and literature to show that the emergence of liberty in a capitalist society confronts certain obstacles that are manifested, in different ways, in economy, politics, ideology, art, culture and the media, and through an organized process, ultimately lead to the appearance of a consumerist society. According to Adorno’s and Marcuse’s sociological views, “negative aesthetics” analyzes consumerism in the West so as to challenge the anti-rationalistic aspects of a “unidimensional society.” These ideas finally lead to the emergence of a phenomenon known as “culture industry” which uses devices like the media and propaganda to deceive individuals. Therefore, the consumers are dominated by these devices and are deprived of their will and awareness. Marjan Shirmohammadi’s novel, Azar, Shahdokht, Parviz and the Others, presents an image of such a consumerist world which turns individuals into rivals over consumption. Using a descriptive-analytical method, the present study demonstrates that consumerism and commodification turn the characters into subjects in a world replete with consumerist objects and the prevalence of the cultural industry creates a deep rift between native and foreign cultures. As a result, concepts such as consumerism, accumulation and abundance, can be used to criticize the different dimensions of “negative aesthetics” in the false identities of the characters. Extended Abstract Introduction The Frankfurt School of critical theory analyzes the emerging socio-economic situation of societies, and provides us with a comprehensive understanding of economic, cultural variables, and capital and production. It can help us examine the outcomes of the ‘culture industry’ in industrial and developing societies, esp. its effect on literary production in the West. The present article tries to offer a critical approach to culture in the novel Azar, Shahdokht, Parviz and the Others by analyzing the principles of negative aesthetics, thus studying the effects of the cultural and economic effects of the West on the one-dimensional Iranian society. Theoretical Framework The Frankfurt School theorists divide culture into authentic culture and mass culture. They believe that art and culture in the modern times have turned into a commercial commodity, serving the ruling system. Adorno finds art a negative event and has tried to discuss the negative aspects of art, associating it with the term “negative aesthetics”. Marcuse, however, regards art as being the affirmative aspect of freedom. In the present study, the negative aspects of art are discussed in the novel Azar, Shahdokht, Parviz and the Others. Methodology Adopting the descriptive-analytical research method, the present study tries to criticize the foundations of culture industry and then examine negative aesthetics in the novel Azar, Shahdokht, Parviz and the Others. Discussion and Analysis Azar, Shahdokht, Parviz and the Others criticizes the values of a society that is devoid of spiritual aspects through describing the everyday life of a modern family. The consumerist identity in this novel, based on the ideas of Marcuse, represents the hegemony of societies that give them their identities. Negative aesthetics questions the totality of this novel and reveals the negative aspects of art in this novel. In this novel, art has turned into a tool for controlling the masses. According to Adorno, in order to purify art, social challenges should be discussed so that audiences are encouraged to resist the status quo. Conclusion In the novel Azar, Shahdokht, Parviz and the Others negative aesthetics is employed to criticize the culture of Iranian society. Culture industry tries to control people by distorting social and cultural realities. In this novel, the characters, who have been subjugated by the culture industry, try to develop a new identity for their lives. Culture industry turns individuals into consumerist subjects, who try to develop a new definition of identity and social values. This has been reflected in the behavior, taste and lifestyle of the characters of the novel. Select Bibliography Adorno, T. and Horkheimer, M. 1385 [2006]. Dialektik-e Roshangari. M. Farhadpour and O. Mehregan (trans.) Tehran: Gaam-e No. Adorno, T. and Horkheimer, M. 1396 [2017]. Beh Souye Manifest-e No. A. H. Eftekharirad. Tehran: Cheshmeh. Adorno, T. 1399 [2020]. Alaih-e Idealism. M. Farhadpour (trans.). Tehran: Hermes. Baudrillard, J. 1388 [2009]. Jame’eh-ye Masrafi. P. Izadi (trans.). Tehran: Sales. Bottomore, T. 1394 [2015]. Maktab-e Franfurt. H. A. Nozari (trans.). Tehran: Ney. Marcuse, H. 1394 [2015]. Ensan-e Taksahati. M. Mo’ayedi (trans.). Tehran: Amirkabir. Nozari, H. 1394 [2015]. Nazaryeh-ye Enteqadi-e Maktab-e Frankfurt. Tehran: Agah. Richard, B. 1388 [2009]. Ravankavi-e Farhang-e Aameh. H. Payandeh (trans.). Tehran: Sales. Storey, J. 1389 [2010]. Moteleat-e Farhangi Darbare-ye Farhang-e Aameh. H. Payandeh (trans.). Tehran: Agah. Thorstein, V. 1387 [2008]. Nazaryeh-ye Tabaqeh-ye Tanasa. F. Ershad. Tehran: Ney. As an important and comprehensive critical method, “critical aesthetics” of the Frankfurt School, deals with art and literature to show that the emergence of liberty in a capitalist society confronts certain obstacles that are manifested, in different ways, in economy, politics, ideology, art, culture and the media, and through an organized process, ultimately lead to the appearance of a consumerist society. According to Adorno’s and Marcuse’s sociological views, “negative aesthetics” analyzes consumerism in the West so as to challenge the anti-rationalistic aspects of a “unidimensional society.” These ideas finally lead to the emergence of a phenomenon known as “culture industry” which uses devices like the media and propaganda to deceive individuals. Therefore, the consumers are dominated by these devices and are deprived of their will and awareness. Marjan Shirmohammadi’s novel, Azar, Shahdokht, Parviz and the Others, presents an image of such a consumerist world which turns individuals into rivals over consumption. Using a descriptive-analytical method, the present study demonstrates that consumerism and commodification turn the characters into subjects in a world replete with consumerist objects and the prevalence of the cultural industry creates a deep rift between native and foreign cultures. As a result, concepts such as consumerism, accumulation and abundance, can be used to criticize the different dimensions of “negative aesthetics” in the false identities of the characters. Extended Abstract Introduction The Frankfurt School of critical theory analyzes the emerging socio-economic situation of societies, and provides us with a comprehensive understanding of economic, cultural variables, and capital and production. It can help us examine the outcomes of the ‘culture industry’ in industrial and developing societies, esp. its effect on literary production in the West. The present article tries to offer a critical approach to culture in the novel Azar, Shahdokht, Parviz and the Others by analyzing the principles of negative aesthetics, thus studying the effects of the cultural and economic effects of the West on the one-dimensional Iranian society. Theoretical Framework The Frankfurt School theorists divide culture into authentic culture and mass culture. They believe that art and culture in the modern times have turned into a commercial commodity, serving the ruling system. Adorno finds art a negative event and has tried to discuss the negative aspects of art, associating it with the term “negative aesthetics”. Marcuse, however, regards art as being the affirmative aspect of freedom. In the present study, the negative aspects of art are discussed in the novel Azar, Shahdokht, Parviz and the Others. Methodology Adopting the descriptive-analytical research method, the present study tries to criticize the foundations of culture industry and then examine negative aesthetics in the novel Azar, Shahdokht, Parviz and the Others. Discussion and Analysis Azar, Shahdokht, Parviz and the Others criticizes the values of a society that is devoid of spiritual aspects through describing the everyday life of a modern family. The consumerist identity in this novel, based on the ideas of Marcuse, represents the hegemony of societies that give them their identities. Negative aesthetics questions the totality of this novel and reveals the negative aspects of art in this novel. In this novel, art has turned into a tool for controlling the masses. According to Adorno, in order to purify art, social challenges should be discussed so that audiences are encouraged to resist the status quo. Conclusion In the novel Azar, Shahdokht, Parviz and the Others negative aesthetics is employed to criticize the culture of Iranian society. Culture industry tries to control people by distorting social and cultural realities. In this novel, the characters, who have been subjugated by the culture industry, try to develop a new identity for their lives. Culture industry turns individuals into consumerist subjects, who try to develop a new definition of identity and social values. This has been reflected in the behavior, taste and lifestyle of the characters of the novel. Select Bibliography Adorno, T. and Horkheimer, M. 1385 [2006]. Dialektik-e Roshangari. M. Farhadpour and O. Mehregan (trans.) Tehran: Gaam-e No. Adorno, T. and Horkheimer, M. 1396 [2017]. Beh Souye Manifest-e No. A. H. Eftekharirad. Tehran: Cheshmeh. Adorno, T. 1399 [2020]. Alaih-e Idealism. M. Farhadpour (trans.). Tehran: Hermes. Baudrillard, J. 1388 [2009]. Jame’eh-ye Masrafi. P. Izadi (trans.). Tehran: Sales. Bottomore, T. 1394 [2015]. Maktab-e Franfurt. H. A. Nozari (trans.). Tehran: Ney. Marcuse, H. 1394 [2015]. Ensan-e Taksahati. M. Mo’ayedi (trans.). Tehran: Amirkabir. Nozari, H. 1394 [2015]. Nazaryeh-ye Enteqadi-e Maktab-e Frankfurt. Tehran: Agah. Richard, B. 1388 [2009]. Ravankavi-e Farhang-e Aameh. H. Payandeh (trans.). Tehran: Sales. Storey, J. 1389 [2010]. Moteleat-e Farhangi Darbare-ye Farhang-e Aameh. H. Payandeh (trans.). Tehran: Agah. Thorstein, V. 1387 [2008]. Nazaryeh-ye Tabaqeh-ye Tanasa. F. Ershad. Tehran: Ney.

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Guilan University Literary Theory and Criticism 2476-7387 6 2 2022 02 20 The Role of the Dialectical View in the Emergence of New Types of Character in the Persian Novel Case Study: The Nocturnal Harmony of the Wooden Orchestra The Role of the Dialectical View in the Emergence of New Types of Character in the Persian Novel Case Study: The Nocturnal Harmony of the Wooden Orchestra 119 142 4822 10.22124/naqd.2021.14837.1868 FA Rashin Khajavi Rad PhD Candidate in Persian Language and Literature, University of Birjand, Birjand, Iran Akbar Shayanseresht Associate Professor of Persian Language and Literature, University of Birjand, Birjand,, Iran Mohammad Behnamfar Professor of Persian Language and Literature, University of Birjand, Birjand, Iran Ebrahim Mohammadi Associate Professor of Persian Language and Literature, University of Birjand, Birjand, Iran Journal Article 2019 10 27 Individuality is a general phenomenon surrounded by a whole world of economic, social and other kinds of reality. An individual is, in every way, affected by the world, and affects it, in turn. The interaction is of a dialectical nature. An aspect of the dialectical attitude in the field of art and thought is the dominant role of the economic and social base in the creation of great works of art and literature. The dependence of the great works of art and literature on the economic and social infrastructures is undeniable, though it is highly complex, indirect and mediated, and does not reduce the relative independence of the literary work. According to the dialectical view, each phase of social history is accompanied by a great literary form, and the novel as a literary form in the age of Capitalism is described by the problematic hero. This article does not intend to accept or reject the dialectical view in literature; rather, it seeks to examine the role of this view in the emergence of new types in literature. The existence of the problematic hero in a longitudinal relationship leads to the emergence of a stigmatized type and a type with a sense of inferiority in literature. In other words, the problematic hero is the origin of both types in the contemporary novel. Extended Abstract Introduction Human beings, in a kind of dialectical relationship, are affected by and affect the world in different ways. An important aspect of the dialectical perspective in arts and literature is the role of social and economic status in the creation of great works of art and literature. From a dialectical perspective, each stage of the social history has witnessed the development of a literary form. The novel is the literary form of the capitalist era, characterized by the problematic protagonist. The present article examines the role of the dialectical relationship in the development of new genres and types in literature. Theoretical Framework From a dialectical perspective, social and economic factors have a huge influence on literary production. Dialectics found its way into literature through Marx, and Lukács explained the development of specific literary genres based on social and historical developments. The unity existing in the era of The Iliad and The Odyssey between awareness and the world disappears in the novel, which is the literary form of the capitalist era. According to Lukács, the novel is characterized by a protagonist that is problematic. It is has a dialectical nature and revolves around a useless search because, on the one hand, the protagonist and the worlds are similar in their fruitlessness and, on the other, there is a deep dissociation between them. Goldmann explains the separation between the protagonist and the world from a dialectical perspective. The present article examines the development of specific characters in novels resulting from the presence of the problematic protagonist. Methodology Using the descriptive-analytical method, the present article seeks to examine the role of the dialectical perspective in the development of genres in contemporary fiction. It tries to study the effect of the problematic protagonist in contemporary Iranian fiction and its role in the development of new genres in fiction. Discussion and Analysis Many of the protagonists in Iranian novels are problematic characters who found their way into literature simultaneous with the social, political and economic developments in Iran in the early 20th century. Reza Shah’s authoritarian rule caused a big gap between the intellectuals’ mentality and the society. The 1953 coup d'état brought about increased violence for intellectuals and a deeper social and culture gap in Iranian society, as a result of which characters in the novels of this period experienced serious crises and anxiety. The narrator of The Nocturnal Harmony of the Wooden Orchestra (Hamnavayi-e Shabaneh-ye Orkestr-e Choubha) is a problematic character who, because of his resistance to the norms of society, suffers the stigma of being different and is exiled. Conclusion The novel turned into the dominant literary form at the beginning of the 20th century. The protagonists of this new form were different from those of classical Persian literature as they mainly are obsessed with telling the story of individuals in the background of social changes. Gradually these characters turned into problematic characters, allowing Persian novels to embrace new themes reflecting the social, economic and political changes of society. Since problematic characters are rejected by society, because of the stigma of being different, a new type of stigmatized character is developed, and this, in turn, results in the development of other character types marked by a sense of inferiority. The problematic character of the novel Hamnavayi-e Shabaneh-ye Orkestr-e Choubha has no future and resists the values of his society. He is stigmatized and exiled, and suffers from a sense of inferiority. Select Bibliography Eagleton, T. 1383 [2004]. Marxism va Naqd-e Adabi. A. Masoumbeigi (trans.). Tehran: Nashr-e Digar. Goffman, E. 1392 [2013]. Dagh-e Nang. M. Kianpour (trans.). Tehran: Markaz. Goldmann, L. 1381 [2002]. Jame’eh-shenasi-e Adabyat: Defa’ az Jame’eh-shenasi-e Roman. M. J. Pouyandeh (trans.). Tehran: Cheshmeh. Goldmann, L.1381 [2002]. Jame’eh, Farhang, Adabyat. M. J. Pouyandeh (trans.). Tehran: Mahi. Lukács, G.1392 [2013]. Jame’eh-shenasi-e Roman. M. J. Pouyandeh (trans.). Tehran: Mahi. Mansour, M. 1369 [1990]. Ehsas-e Kehtari. Tehran: Daneshgah-e Tehran. Mirabedini, J. 1392 [2013]. Sad Sal Dastannevisi-e Iran. Tehran: Cheshmeh. Ritzer, G. 1384 [2005]. Nazaryeh-ha-ye Jame’eh-shenasi dar Doran-e Moa’ser. M. Solasi (trans.). Tehran: Elmi. Suchkov, B. 1362 [1983]. Tarikh-e Realism. M. Faramarzi (trans.). Tehran: Tondar. Zeraffa, M. 1386 [2007]. Jame’eh-shenasi-e Adabyat-e Dastani. N. Parvini (trans.). Tehran: Sokhan. Individuality is a general phenomenon surrounded by a whole world of economic, social and other kinds of reality. An individual is, in every way, affected by the world, and affects it, in turn. The interaction is of a dialectical nature. An aspect of the dialectical attitude in the field of art and thought is the dominant role of the economic and social base in the creation of great works of art and literature. The dependence of the great works of art and literature on the economic and social infrastructures is undeniable, though it is highly complex, indirect and mediated, and does not reduce the relative independence of the literary work. According to the dialectical view, each phase of social history is accompanied by a great literary form, and the novel as a literary form in the age of Capitalism is described by the problematic hero. This article does not intend to accept or reject the dialectical view in literature; rather, it seeks to examine the role of this view in the emergence of new types in literature. The existence of the problematic hero in a longitudinal relationship leads to the emergence of a stigmatized type and a type with a sense of inferiority in literature. In other words, the problematic hero is the origin of both types in the contemporary novel. Extended Abstract Introduction Human beings, in a kind of dialectical relationship, are affected by and affect the world in different ways. An important aspect of the dialectical perspective in arts and literature is the role of social and economic status in the creation of great works of art and literature. From a dialectical perspective, each stage of the social history has witnessed the development of a literary form. The novel is the literary form of the capitalist era, characterized by the problematic protagonist. The present article examines the role of the dialectical relationship in the development of new genres and types in literature. Theoretical Framework From a dialectical perspective, social and economic factors have a huge influence on literary production. Dialectics found its way into literature through Marx, and Lukács explained the development of specific literary genres based on social and historical developments. The unity existing in the era of The Iliad and The Odyssey between awareness and the world disappears in the novel, which is the literary form of the capitalist era. According to Lukács, the novel is characterized by a protagonist that is problematic. It is has a dialectical nature and revolves around a useless search because, on the one hand, the protagonist and the worlds are similar in their fruitlessness and, on the other, there is a deep dissociation between them. Goldmann explains the separation between the protagonist and the world from a dialectical perspective. The present article examines the development of specific characters in novels resulting from the presence of the problematic protagonist. Methodology Using the descriptive-analytical method, the present article seeks to examine the role of the dialectical perspective in the development of genres in contemporary fiction. It tries to study the effect of the problematic protagonist in contemporary Iranian fiction and its role in the development of new genres in fiction. Discussion and Analysis Many of the protagonists in Iranian novels are problematic characters who found their way into literature simultaneous with the social, political and economic developments in Iran in the early 20th century. Reza Shah’s authoritarian rule caused a big gap between the intellectuals’ mentality and the society. The 1953 coup d'état brought about increased violence for intellectuals and a deeper social and culture gap in Iranian society, as a result of which characters in the novels of this period experienced serious crises and anxiety. The narrator of The Nocturnal Harmony of the Wooden Orchestra (Hamnavayi-e Shabaneh-ye Orkestr-e Choubha) is a problematic character who, because of his resistance to the norms of society, suffers the stigma of being different and is exiled. Conclusion The novel turned into the dominant literary form at the beginning of the 20th century. The protagonists of this new form were different from those of classical Persian literature as they mainly are obsessed with telling the story of individuals in the background of social changes. Gradually these characters turned into problematic characters, allowing Persian novels to embrace new themes reflecting the social, economic and political changes of society. Since problematic characters are rejected by society, because of the stigma of being different, a new type of stigmatized character is developed, and this, in turn, results in the development of other character types marked by a sense of inferiority. The problematic character of the novel Hamnavayi-e Shabaneh-ye Orkestr-e Choubha has no future and resists the values of his society. He is stigmatized and exiled, and suffers from a sense of inferiority. Select Bibliography Eagleton, T. 1383 [2004]. Marxism va Naqd-e Adabi. A. Masoumbeigi (trans.). Tehran: Nashr-e Digar. Goffman, E. 1392 [2013]. Dagh-e Nang. M. Kianpour (trans.). Tehran: Markaz. Goldmann, L. 1381 [2002]. Jame’eh-shenasi-e Adabyat: Defa’ az Jame’eh-shenasi-e Roman. M. J. Pouyandeh (trans.). Tehran: Cheshmeh. Goldmann, L.1381 [2002]. Jame’eh, Farhang, Adabyat. M. J. Pouyandeh (trans.). Tehran: Mahi. Lukács, G.1392 [2013]. Jame’eh-shenasi-e Roman. M. J. Pouyandeh (trans.). Tehran: Mahi. Mansour, M. 1369 [1990]. Ehsas-e Kehtari. Tehran: Daneshgah-e Tehran. Mirabedini, J. 1392 [2013]. Sad Sal Dastannevisi-e Iran. Tehran: Cheshmeh. Ritzer, G. 1384 [2005]. Nazaryeh-ha-ye Jame’eh-shenasi dar Doran-e Moa’ser. M. Solasi (trans.). Tehran: Elmi. Suchkov, B. 1362 [1983]. Tarikh-e Realism. M. Faramarzi (trans.). Tehran: Tondar. Zeraffa, M. 1386 [2007]. Jame’eh-shenasi-e Adabyat-e Dastani. N. Parvini (trans.). Tehran: Sokhan.

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Guilan University Literary Theory and Criticism 2476-7387 6 2 2022 02 20 The Emergence of the Political Subject and Prison Aesthetics with an Emphasis on Shamlou’s Poetry The Emergence of the Political Subject and Prison Aesthetics with an Emphasis on Shamlou’s Poetry 143 166 5314 10.22124/naqd.2021.19357.2198 FA Mohila Rezaee Foumani PhD Candidate in Persian Language and Literature, Islamic Azad University of Ghaemshahr, Iran Hesam Ziaee Assistant Professor of Persian Language and Literature, Islamic Azad University of Ghaemshahr, Iran Mehrali Yazdanpanah Associate Professor of Persian Language and Literature, Islamic Azad University of Ghaemshahr, Iran Journal Article 2021 04 12 Habsiyeh, a poem written in prison, is a kind in which the poet turns his experience of confinement and torture into artistic experience; however, the representation of the prison in habsiyeh is not the same in pre-modern and modern poetry. The pre-modern habsiyeh-poet is more of a fatalist and considers the current situation as predestined. Therefore, he identifies his agency with the situation he describes. Although habsiyeh is basically a type of protest literature, it is only in contemporary poetry that it is associated with the political subject. In contemporary poetry, the concept of prison has manifested itself in a different way with discursive implications and disjunctions. With the formation of the national state and the birth of the prison in the modern world, the concept of prison changes from a religious and individual matter to a political one. The history of the evolution of the institution of prison in the modern state is related to the discursive formation of the prison in contemporary poetry. The most important research hypothesis of the present paper is that the historical emergence of the political subject has led to the appearance of prison aesthetics. Therefore, using a genealogical approach, this article has followed two aims: The historical connection between the developments of the prison as an institution in modern Iran, and the representation of ideas and metaphors on the prison in Shamlou’s poetry as an example of a dissident poet. As the institution of prison has become more widespread and complex in modern states, prison metaphors have been overflowed with habsiyeh-poetry in protest literature. In Shamlou’s poetry, protest literature is related to the subjectivity of the poet. He does not limit the concept of prison to habsiyeh; rather, he connects prison metaphors to social symbolism. In other words, in Shamlou’s poetry, the concept of liberty has, in a complex way, extended the prison metaphors to poems other than habsiyeh as well. Extended Abstract Introduction Habsiyeh (prison poetry) is a kind of poetry written in prison about the poet’s experience of confinement and torture turned into a form of aesthetic experience. The representation of prison life is not the same in pre-modern and post-modern prison poetry. The concept of prison has a historical concept hidden in it, highlighting its metaphorical quality. The pre-modern poet Masoud Sa’d uses metaphors rooted in emotions that reveal the discursive structure of a period. His relationship with the world and power can be identified through these metaphors as he has created many images of his relationship with fate, luck, fortune and the like. He shows his agency through these descriptions. Theoretical Framework The pre-modern poet believes in unchangeable structures; however, the modern poet understands prison poetry in a different way. While in the pre-modern world, prison poetry is mostly a kind of spiritual and psychological expression and projection, in the modern world it focuses on subjects such as freedom, homeland, oppression, resistance and the like. In the present study, Ahmad Shamlou’s poetry is examined in order to explain the relationship between the emergence of the political subject in modern Persian poetry and the emergence of prison aesthetics. Methodology The present study adopts the genealogical approach in order to examine the relationship between the subjectivity of the poet and prison aesthetics. In other words, the selection of symbols in prison poetry by modern poets is an expression of their subjectivity. Discussion and Analysis Prison poetry, of whatever type, is a form of protest literature. However, in contemporary poetry, prison poetry is connected with political individuals, and the concept of prison develops through discursive significations and discursive discontinuities. Shamlou expresses his protest in different ways. He creates subjects and images against political constructs. He, moreover, challenges the prevalent constructs in Persian poetry. Shamlou’s subjectivity has turned his poetry into a kind of social construct. He turns poetry into a kind of political action and turns the political action into an aesthetic experience by connecting prison symbols with social symbolism. The contrast between freedom and prison in his poetry is both a source for metaphors and a means of constructing a heroic language to describe subjects that stand against power. Conclusion Historical changes and the physical and institutional growth of prison in the Pahlavi era in Iran show that there is an association between the birth of prison in the modern times and the prison discourse in contemporary poetry. When poets gain a kind of political subjectivity, the prison institution gets more complicated. Shamlou’s poetry, which has a close association with social and political changes in Iran, has adequately represented changes in prison discourse and the relationship between political subjectivity and prison aesthetics. Select Bibliography Foucault, M. 1382 [2003]. Moraqebat va Tanbih: Tavallod-e Zendan. N. Sarkhosh and A. Jahandideh. Tehran: Nay. Hall, D. 1396 [2017]. Subjectivity. H. Shahi. Tehran: Parseh. Jahandideh, S. 1391 [2012]. “Padidarshenasi va Senkh-shenasi-e Mokhalefkhani-ha-ye Ahmad Shamlou.” Naqd-e Adabi 5/19: 103-134. Khazayi, Yaqoub. 1390 [2011]. Farayand-e Sakhtyabi-e Nahad-e Zendan az Mashrouteh ta Payan-e Pahlavi-e Aval. Tehran: Agah. Mokhtari, M. 1387 [2008]. Ensan dar She’r-e Moaser. Tehran: Tous. Rafi’i Moqaddam, H. and Moshtaqmehr, R. 1397 [2018]. “Tahlil-e Gofteman-e Enteqadi-e Zendan dar Do Zist-jahan-e Klasik va Modern ba Tekyeh bar Habsiyeh-ha-ye Masoud Sa’d, Farrokhi va Mohammad Taqi Bahar.” Kavoshnameh-ye Zaban va Adabyat-e Farsi. 19/38: 129-160. Shamlou, A. 1381 [2002]. Majoumeh Asar. Terhan: Nagah. Habsiyeh, a poem written in prison, is a kind in which the poet turns his experience of confinement and torture into artistic experience; however, the representation of the prison in habsiyeh is not the same in pre-modern and modern poetry. The pre-modern habsiyeh-poet is more of a fatalist and considers the current situation as predestined. Therefore, he identifies his agency with the situation he describes. Although habsiyeh is basically a type of protest literature, it is only in contemporary poetry that it is associated with the political subject. In contemporary poetry, the concept of prison has manifested itself in a different way with discursive implications and disjunctions. With the formation of the national state and the birth of the prison in the modern world, the concept of prison changes from a religious and individual matter to a political one. The history of the evolution of the institution of prison in the modern state is related to the discursive formation of the prison in contemporary poetry. The most important research hypothesis of the present paper is that the historical emergence of the political subject has led to the appearance of prison aesthetics. Therefore, using a genealogical approach, this article has followed two aims: The historical connection between the developments of the prison as an institution in modern Iran, and the representation of ideas and metaphors on the prison in Shamlou’s poetry as an example of a dissident poet. As the institution of prison has become more widespread and complex in modern states, prison metaphors have been overflowed with habsiyeh-poetry in protest literature. In Shamlou’s poetry, protest literature is related to the subjectivity of the poet. He does not limit the concept of prison to habsiyeh; rather, he connects prison metaphors to social symbolism. In other words, in Shamlou’s poetry, the concept of liberty has, in a complex way, extended the prison metaphors to poems other than habsiyeh as well. Extended Abstract Introduction Habsiyeh (prison poetry) is a kind of poetry written in prison about the poet’s experience of confinement and torture turned into a form of aesthetic experience. The representation of prison life is not the same in pre-modern and post-modern prison poetry. The concept of prison has a historical concept hidden in it, highlighting its metaphorical quality. The pre-modern poet Masoud Sa’d uses metaphors rooted in emotions that reveal the discursive structure of a period. His relationship with the world and power can be identified through these metaphors as he has created many images of his relationship with fate, luck, fortune and the like. He shows his agency through these descriptions. Theoretical Framework The pre-modern poet believes in unchangeable structures; however, the modern poet understands prison poetry in a different way. While in the pre-modern world, prison poetry is mostly a kind of spiritual and psychological expression and projection, in the modern world it focuses on subjects such as freedom, homeland, oppression, resistance and the like. In the present study, Ahmad Shamlou’s poetry is examined in order to explain the relationship between the emergence of the political subject in modern Persian poetry and the emergence of prison aesthetics. Methodology The present study adopts the genealogical approach in order to examine the relationship between the subjectivity of the poet and prison aesthetics. In other words, the selection of symbols in prison poetry by modern poets is an expression of their subjectivity. Discussion and Analysis Prison poetry, of whatever type, is a form of protest literature. However, in contemporary poetry, prison poetry is connected with political individuals, and the concept of prison develops through discursive significations and discursive discontinuities. Shamlou expresses his protest in different ways. He creates subjects and images against political constructs. He, moreover, challenges the prevalent constructs in Persian poetry. Shamlou’s subjectivity has turned his poetry into a kind of social construct. He turns poetry into a kind of political action and turns the political action into an aesthetic experience by connecting prison symbols with social symbolism. The contrast between freedom and prison in his poetry is both a source for metaphors and a means of constructing a heroic language to describe subjects that stand against power. Conclusion Historical changes and the physical and institutional growth of prison in the Pahlavi era in Iran show that there is an association between the birth of prison in the modern times and the prison discourse in contemporary poetry. When poets gain a kind of political subjectivity, the prison institution gets more complicated. Shamlou’s poetry, which has a close association with social and political changes in Iran, has adequately represented changes in prison discourse and the relationship between political subjectivity and prison aesthetics. Select Bibliography Foucault, M. 1382 [2003]. Moraqebat va Tanbih: Tavallod-e Zendan. N. Sarkhosh and A. Jahandideh. Tehran: Nay. Hall, D. 1396 [2017]. Subjectivity. H. Shahi. Tehran: Parseh. Jahandideh, S. 1391 [2012]. “Padidarshenasi va Senkh-shenasi-e Mokhalefkhani-ha-ye Ahmad Shamlou.” Naqd-e Adabi 5/19: 103-134. Khazayi, Yaqoub. 1390 [2011]. Farayand-e Sakhtyabi-e Nahad-e Zendan az Mashrouteh ta Payan-e Pahlavi-e Aval. Tehran: Agah. Mokhtari, M. 1387 [2008]. Ensan dar She’r-e Moaser. Tehran: Tous. Rafi’i Moqaddam, H. and Moshtaqmehr, R. 1397 [2018]. “Tahlil-e Gofteman-e Enteqadi-e Zendan dar Do Zist-jahan-e Klasik va Modern ba Tekyeh bar Habsiyeh-ha-ye Masoud Sa’d, Farrokhi va Mohammad Taqi Bahar.” Kavoshnameh-ye Zaban va Adabyat-e Farsi. 19/38: 129-160. Shamlou, A. 1381 [2002]. Majoumeh Asar. Terhan: Nagah.

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Guilan University Literary Theory and Criticism 2476-7387 6 2 2022 02 20 Self-consciousness in the Novel: A Study of Hegel’s and Bakhtin’s Points of View Self-consciousness in the Novel: A Study of Hegel’s and Bakhtin’s Points of View 167 188 5319 10.22124/naqd.2022.16163.1970 FA Maryamsadat Hosseini Sirat PhD Candidate in Philosophy, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran Yousef Shaghool Associate Professor of Philosophy, University of Isfahan, Isfahan, Iran Journal Article 2020 04 05 Hegel, a German philosopher, and Bakhtin, a Russian literary critic, are the two thinkers who have placed the novel within the framework of their contemplation and have focused on the element of self-consciousness in the novel. In Hegel’s philosophy, in the course of the Spirit’s development towards freedom, the novel is the highest manifestation of the Spirit in artistic form, where the Spirit reaches one of the highest levels of self-consciousness. Moreover, due to its origins in the romantic era of art, the novel has heroes with self-consciousness. Bakhtin views self-consciousness in the novel from two perspectives: one is where he introduces the novel as a kind of self-conscious genre, and the other one is where he speaks about the self-consciousness of the novel’s hero. When Bakhtin introduces Dostoevsky as the creator of the polyphonic novel, he says it is the hero’s self-consciousness that gives Dostoevsky’s novels the quality of polyphony. Yet, the talk of self-consciousness in the novel intertwines with the talk of homelessness in both thinkers’ discussions. In this paper, we have tried to show the position of each of the two thinkers with regard to this subject, their similarities and differences, and the dialogue between them. Extended Abstract Introduction Bakhtin is mostly regarded as a critic of Hegel. However, he believes that a text is not a separate, detached phenomenon but it rather develops through dialogues and interactions with other texts. The same principle is true about Bakhtin’s writings as well. Thus, according to Bakhtin himself, it is not surprising if we try to uncover his hidden dialogues with Hegel. For this purpose, the concept of self-consciousness, which has been examined by both thinkers, will be studied here in order to understand the ideas they have in common in this regard. Theoretical Framework Hegel and Bakhtin attached great importance to self-consciousness in the novel. According to Hegel, the spirit can overcome its self-alienation and achieve a degree of freedom through self-consciousness. He believes that in Romantic art, with the novel being one of its types, the protagonist is self-conscious. Bakhtin’s theory of the novel, which is a response to Lukács’s The Theory of the Novel, tries to highlight the points where he distinguishes himself from Hegel. Lukács, as a commentator of Hegel’s ideas about the novel, accepts that the novel has replaced the epic in modern times and adds that it is the story of man’s homelessness. Bakhtin holds that the novel is the outcome of man’s homelessness. While Lukács finds the novel to be the story of man’s transcendental homelessness, Bakhtin regards it as the linguistic homelessness of human beings. He is different from Hegel and Lukács in that he welcomes this homelessness and does not, unlike Hegel, try to overcome it. Methodology The present article has adopted the library-based research method to study self-consciousness in the novel. Discussion and Analysis Both Hegel and Bakhtin have discussed self-consciousness in the novel; however, whereas Hegel bases his discussion on dialectics, Bakhtin’s discussion revolves around dialogue. To Hegel, the novel is the art of struggle and hostility, which should be directed toward peace and unity, but Bakhtin welcomes plurality and polyphony. To Hegel and Lukács the novel is associated with self-alienation and homeless, but to Bakhtin it is the source of creativity and freedom. Hegel finds self-consciousness an attempt to overcome self-alienation and homelessness, but self-consciousness in Bakhtin is the result of mans’ homelessness as without it freedom and consequently polyphony cannot be achieved. Conclusion A study of ideas of Hegel and Bakhtin concerning the two concepts of self-consciousness and homelessness in novels reveals that the two thinkers share some ideas in this regard, resulting from a kind of dialogue between them. The differences in their ideas are due to a difference in the bases of their thoughts. Select Bibliography Allen, G. 1392 [2013]. Baynamatniat. P. Yazdanjou (trans.). Tehran: Markaz. Bakhtin, M. 1391 [2012]. Takhayol-e Mokaleme’h-i. R. Pourazar (trans.). Tehran: Ney. Bakhtin, M. 1395 [2016]. Porsesh-ha-ye Boutiqa-ye Dostoevsky. S. Solhjou. Tehran: Niloufar. Gandesha, S. 2014 [2012]. “Hegel’s Homecoming of Spirit.” Contours Journal 4. URL: https://www.sfu.ca/humanities-institute/contours/issue4/issue4_p5.html Holquist,M. 1395 [2016]. Mokalemehgarayi. M. Amirkhanlou. Tehran: Niloufar. Lukács, G. 1392 [2013]. Nazaryeh-ye Roman. H. Mortazavi (trans.). Tehran: Ashiyan. Lumsden, . 2015. “At Home with Hegel and Heidegger.” Philosophy Today 59/1: 7-21. Neubauer, J. 1996. “Bakhtin versus Lukács: Inscriptions of Homelessness in Theories of the Novel.” Poetics Today 17/4: 531-546 Ousheli, M. 1390 [2011]. Terazhedi dar Falsafeh-ye Hegel. MA Thesis. University of Isfahan. Todorov, T. 1391 [2022]. Manteq-e Goftegouyi-e Mikhail Bakhtin. D. Karimi (trans.). Tehran: Nashr-e Markaz. Hegel, a German philosopher, and Bakhtin, a Russian literary critic, are the two thinkers who have placed the novel within the framework of their contemplation and have focused on the element of self-consciousness in the novel. In Hegel’s philosophy, in the course of the Spirit’s development towards freedom, the novel is the highest manifestation of the Spirit in artistic form, where the Spirit reaches one of the highest levels of self-consciousness. Moreover, due to its origins in the romantic era of art, the novel has heroes with self-consciousness. Bakhtin views self-consciousness in the novel from two perspectives: one is where he introduces the novel as a kind of self-conscious genre, and the other one is where he speaks about the self-consciousness of the novel’s hero. When Bakhtin introduces Dostoevsky as the creator of the polyphonic novel, he says it is the hero’s self-consciousness that gives Dostoevsky’s novels the quality of polyphony. Yet, the talk of self-consciousness in the novel intertwines with the talk of homelessness in both thinkers’ discussions. In this paper, we have tried to show the position of each of the two thinkers with regard to this subject, their similarities and differences, and the dialogue between them. Extended Abstract Introduction Bakhtin is mostly regarded as a critic of Hegel. However, he believes that a text is not a separate, detached phenomenon but it rather develops through dialogues and interactions with other texts. The same principle is true about Bakhtin’s writings as well. Thus, according to Bakhtin himself, it is not surprising if we try to uncover his hidden dialogues with Hegel. For this purpose, the concept of self-consciousness, which has been examined by both thinkers, will be studied here in order to understand the ideas they have in common in this regard. Theoretical Framework Hegel and Bakhtin attached great importance to self-consciousness in the novel. According to Hegel, the spirit can overcome its self-alienation and achieve a degree of freedom through self-consciousness. He believes that in Romantic art, with the novel being one of its types, the protagonist is self-conscious. Bakhtin’s theory of the novel, which is a response to Lukács’s The Theory of the Novel, tries to highlight the points where he distinguishes himself from Hegel. Lukács, as a commentator of Hegel’s ideas about the novel, accepts that the novel has replaced the epic in modern times and adds that it is the story of man’s homelessness. Bakhtin holds that the novel is the outcome of man’s homelessness. While Lukács finds the novel to be the story of man’s transcendental homelessness, Bakhtin regards it as the linguistic homelessness of human beings. He is different from Hegel and Lukács in that he welcomes this homelessness and does not, unlike Hegel, try to overcome it. Methodology The present article has adopted the library-based research method to study self-consciousness in the novel. Discussion and Analysis Both Hegel and Bakhtin have discussed self-consciousness in the novel; however, whereas Hegel bases his discussion on dialectics, Bakhtin’s discussion revolves around dialogue. To Hegel, the novel is the art of struggle and hostility, which should be directed toward peace and unity, but Bakhtin welcomes plurality and polyphony. To Hegel and Lukács the novel is associated with self-alienation and homeless, but to Bakhtin it is the source of creativity and freedom. Hegel finds self-consciousness an attempt to overcome self-alienation and homelessness, but self-consciousness in Bakhtin is the result of mans’ homelessness as without it freedom and consequently polyphony cannot be achieved. Conclusion A study of ideas of Hegel and Bakhtin concerning the two concepts of self-consciousness and homelessness in novels reveals that the two thinkers share some ideas in this regard, resulting from a kind of dialogue between them. The differences in their ideas are due to a difference in the bases of their thoughts. Select Bibliography Allen, G. 1392 [2013]. Baynamatniat. P. Yazdanjou (trans.). Tehran: Markaz. Bakhtin, M. 1391 [2012]. Takhayol-e Mokaleme’h-i. R. Pourazar (trans.). Tehran: Ney. Bakhtin, M. 1395 [2016]. Porsesh-ha-ye Boutiqa-ye Dostoevsky. S. Solhjou. Tehran: Niloufar. Gandesha, S. 2014 [2012]. “Hegel’s Homecoming of Spirit.” Contours Journal 4. URL: https://www.sfu.ca/humanities-institute/contours/issue4/issue4_p5.html Holquist,M. 1395 [2016]. Mokalemehgarayi. M. Amirkhanlou. Tehran: Niloufar. Lukács, G. 1392 [2013]. Nazaryeh-ye Roman. H. Mortazavi (trans.). Tehran: Ashiyan. Lumsden, . 2015. “At Home with Hegel and Heidegger.” Philosophy Today 59/1: 7-21. Neubauer, J. 1996. “Bakhtin versus Lukács: Inscriptions of Homelessness in Theories of the Novel.” Poetics Today 17/4: 531-546 Ousheli, M. 1390 [2011]. Terazhedi dar Falsafeh-ye Hegel. MA Thesis. University of Isfahan. Todorov, T. 1391 [2022]. Manteq-e Goftegouyi-e Mikhail Bakhtin. D. Karimi (trans.). Tehran: Nashr-e Markaz.

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Guilan University Literary Theory and Criticism 2476-7387 6 2 2022 02 20 Interpretation and the Critique of Its Nature in Masnavi with an Emphasis on Paul Ricoeur’s Views Interpretation and the Critique of Its Nature in Masnavi with an Emphasis on Paul Ricoeur’s Views 189 214 5335 10.22124/naqd.2022.15886.1954 FA Zahra Saberinia (PhD Candidate in Persian Language and Literature, Payam-e Noor University, Tehran, Iran Narges Mohammadi Badr Associate Professor of Persian Language and Literature, Payam-e Noor University, Tehran, Iran Fatemeh Kouppa Professor of Persian Language and Literature, Payam-e Noor University, Tehran, Iran Farhad Doroudgarian Associate Professor of Persian Language and Literature, Payam-e Noor University, Tehran, Iran Journal Article 2020 03 02 The present paper aims at a critical study of the interpretive nature of Masnavi as a determining and dynamic dimension in literature. To orientate and validate this aim, we have specified Molavi’s interpretive approaches based on Paul Ricoeur’s philosophy and reflective phenomenology and have, thus, demonstrated how thought and reflection on interpretation have turned Masnavi into one of the most influential written texts, which displays the three characteristics of explication, understanding, and application. The authors hold that for the interpretation of any text, it is necessary to study the process of the formation of the text and its relation with oratory, dialectics, and de-application. Therefore, studying the elements of interpretation in Masnavi, the authors have shown that this work offers a thick description of understanding, and understanding has made its language dynamic, signifying, and self-sufficient. Consequently, as a classic and a reflection on the textual dimension, Masnavi encompasses discourse, rests on interpretation, and, in reading, forms an active and dialectical totality that gives the reader the opportunity for the understanding and reconfiguration of meaning. Extended Abstract 1. Introduction The present article aims to examine Molavi’s ideas from a phenomenological perspective. Molavi’s approach to historical experience, written language, metaphorical language, connection with the ‘other’ and moving beyond the limitations of the ‘self’ have made the interpretation of his works a dynamic process. This has kept dialectics and reading alive through the development of synthesis and discourse. Here, rather than being a form of description or report, narration has turned into a combination of language, metaphor, and development and expansion of language. 2. Theoretical Framework In Paul Ricœur’s phenomenological hermeneutics, readers of a text may adopt different approaches to understanding and interpretation or a combination of them. According to him, reading is always accompanied by interpretation, and hermeneutics connects explanation and understanding in order to allow for interpretation as a problematic phenomenon through cosmological, ontological and epistemological approaches, offering itself as meta-critique. 3. Methodology The present study is of the descriptive-documentary type. Paul Ricœur’s phenomenological hermeneutics is briefly discussed first, and then Molavi’s techniques in creating texts are examined in some of the stories from Masnavi. 4. Discussion and Analysis Interpretation and recreation of meaning in the stories of Masnavi are closely connected with Molavi’s ontological ideas. In other words, interpretation is an inseparable component of Masnavi. Therefore, Molavi’s writings are not a collection of linguistic expressions devoid of interpretable themes. It rather welcomes interpretation and, as a classical, work allows readers to decipher meanings and reconfigure them. 5. Conclusion At the first level, i.e., explication, by adopting an epistemological approach, Molavi tries to understand early texts and employs interpretation techniques similar to those used in the interpretation of religious texts. At the level of understanding, by adopting the problematic approach, Molavi attempts to interpret The Quran and some other early texts. Here, he marginalizes himself as the author of Masnavi and, inviting the ‘other’ to get involved in dialogue, sets meaning free from being definite and unique. At the third level, which according to Ricœur belongs to the hermeneutic arc, Molavi adopts an ontological approach and employs metaphor to recreate meaning and subsequently a new world, as a result of which his writing is intertwined with discourse and synthesis, making meaning and signification dynamic and flexible in his text. Select Bibliography Jeanrond, G. W. 1988. Text and Interpretation as Categories of Theological Thinking. J. Thomas (trans.). New York: Crossroad. Molavi, J. 1390 [2011]. Masnavi-e Ma’navi. R. Nicholson (ed.). Tehran: Hermes. Ricœur, P. 2000 [1989]. The Conflict of Interpretations: Essays in Hermeneutics. London: The Athlone Press. Ricœur, P. 1392 [2013]. Darbareh-ye Tarjomeh. M. Kashigar (trans.). Tehran: Ofoq. Ricœur, P. 1398a [2019]. Ideolozhi, Akhlaq va Siasat. M. Akhgar. Tehran: Cheshmeh. Ricœur, P. 1398b [2019]. Zaman va Hekayat. M. Nonahali (trans.). Tehran: Ney. Ricœur, P. 1399 [2020]. Darsgoftar-ha-ye Ideolozhi va Otopia. M. Fayzi. Tehran: Markaz. The present paper aims at a critical study of the interpretive nature of Masnavi as a determining and dynamic dimension in literature. To orientate and validate this aim, we have specified Molavi’s interpretive approaches based on Paul Ricoeur’s philosophy and reflective phenomenology and have, thus, demonstrated how thought and reflection on interpretation have turned Masnavi into one of the most influential written texts, which displays the three characteristics of explication, understanding, and application. The authors hold that for the interpretation of any text, it is necessary to study the process of the formation of the text and its relation with oratory, dialectics, and de-application. Therefore, studying the elements of interpretation in Masnavi, the authors have shown that this work offers a thick description of understanding, and understanding has made its language dynamic, signifying, and self-sufficient. Consequently, as a classic and a reflection on the textual dimension, Masnavi encompasses discourse, rests on interpretation, and, in reading, forms an active and dialectical totality that gives the reader the opportunity for the understanding and reconfiguration of meaning. Extended Abstract 1. Introduction The present article aims to examine Molavi’s ideas from a phenomenological perspective. Molavi’s approach to historical experience, written language, metaphorical language, connection with the ‘other’ and moving beyond the limitations of the ‘self’ have made the interpretation of his works a dynamic process. This has kept dialectics and reading alive through the development of synthesis and discourse. Here, rather than being a form of description or report, narration has turned into a combination of language, metaphor, and development and expansion of language. 2. Theoretical Framework In Paul Ricœur’s phenomenological hermeneutics, readers of a text may adopt different approaches to understanding and interpretation or a combination of them. According to him, reading is always accompanied by interpretation, and hermeneutics connects explanation and understanding in order to allow for interpretation as a problematic phenomenon through cosmological, ontological and epistemological approaches, offering itself as meta-critique. 3. Methodology The present study is of the descriptive-documentary type. Paul Ricœur’s phenomenological hermeneutics is briefly discussed first, and then Molavi’s techniques in creating texts are examined in some of the stories from Masnavi. 4. Discussion and Analysis Interpretation and recreation of meaning in the stories of Masnavi are closely connected with Molavi’s ontological ideas. In other words, interpretation is an inseparable component of Masnavi. Therefore, Molavi’s writings are not a collection of linguistic expressions devoid of interpretable themes. It rather welcomes interpretation and, as a classical, work allows readers to decipher meanings and reconfigure them. 5. Conclusion At the first level, i.e., explication, by adopting an epistemological approach, Molavi tries to understand early texts and employs interpretation techniques similar to those used in the interpretation of religious texts. At the level of understanding, by adopting the problematic approach, Molavi attempts to interpret The Quran and some other early texts. Here, he marginalizes himself as the author of Masnavi and, inviting the ‘other’ to get involved in dialogue, sets meaning free from being definite and unique. At the third level, which according to Ricœur belongs to the hermeneutic arc, Molavi adopts an ontological approach and employs metaphor to recreate meaning and subsequently a new world, as a result of which his writing is intertwined with discourse and synthesis, making meaning and signification dynamic and flexible in his text. Select Bibliography Jeanrond, G. W. 1988. Text and Interpretation as Categories of Theological Thinking. J. Thomas (trans.). New York: Crossroad. Molavi, J. 1390 [2011]. Masnavi-e Ma’navi. R. Nicholson (ed.). Tehran: Hermes. Ricœur, P. 2000 [1989]. The Conflict of Interpretations: Essays in Hermeneutics. London: The Athlone Press. Ricœur, P. 1392 [2013]. Darbareh-ye Tarjomeh. M. Kashigar (trans.). Tehran: Ofoq. Ricœur, P. 1398a [2019]. Ideolozhi, Akhlaq va Siasat. M. Akhgar. Tehran: Cheshmeh. Ricœur, P. 1398b [2019]. Zaman va Hekayat. M. Nonahali (trans.). Tehran: Ney. Ricœur, P. 1399 [2020]. Darsgoftar-ha-ye Ideolozhi va Otopia. M. Fayzi. Tehran: Markaz.

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Guilan University Literary Theory and Criticism 2476-7387 6 2 2022 02 20 The Poetics of Kalileh and Demneh: An Analysis of the Mechanisms Governing Its Introductions and Text The Poetics of Kalileh and Demneh: An Analysis of the Mechanisms Governing Its Introductions and Text 215 238 4942 10.22124/naqd.2021.18717.2155 FA Mostafa Sedighi Associate Professor of Persian Language and Literature, University of Hormozgan, Bandar Abbas, Iran Journal Article 2021 01 25 Intending to teach wisdom and relying on the concepts of wisdom, speech and immortality, Kalileh and Demneh seems to have evolved from previous texts. Kalileh and Demneh has so far been translated into different languages, with each translator writing his own introduction to the book. While reproducing the main themes of Kalileh and Demneh, each introduction has encompassed references common in the discourse and language registers of each period to the main text. Employing a descriptive-analytical approach, “mythological symbolism”, and “intertextuality”, the present paper aims to analyze the traces of meaning in Kalileh and Demneh and show how they are reproduced and transferred to the translators’ introductions. To this end, the author describes, analyzes and reviews the introduction sections of various translations of this book in relation to the main text of Kalileh and Demneh. The analysis reveales that, in addition or contrary to the main text, the introductions have tried to find a structural connection with the main text by repeating the traces of meaning of Kalileh and Demneh, and to contribute to its ever-lasting “wisdom”, so that each translation and its introduction has a different interpretation based on the discourse and the language conventions of each period. As a result, each introduction creates a new chain of signifiers, making the introductions an inseparable part of Kalileh and Demneh. Extended Abstract Introduction Kalileh and Demneh has been translated from one language to another and with each translation an introduction has been written for it, bringing about a feeling of eternity. The writers of these introductions and the translators of this book can be viewed as readers who have added something to the text or changed something in it in accordance with the discourses dominating their period. Therefore, the main text, the introductions and the translations can be regarded as a chain of signifiers, forming a kind of fluidity. Thus, a kind of intertextuality can be seen here: the absence of a beginning for the text links it to Indian and Sanskrit mythology and the endlessness of the introductions connects it with the different references and readings of it in Pahlavi, Syriac, Arabic and Persian languages. Theoretical Framework Based on Eliade’s definition of symbolic thinking in mythology, a connection between the realm of mythology and intertextuality can be identified, which is, in a way, similar to the idea of Kristeva in this regard. Methodology The present paper adopts the descriptive-analytical method for the purpose of the study. It also draws on mythological symbolism and intertextuality. Discussion and Analysis Nasrollah Monshi tries to decentralize Kalileh and Demneh and attributes immortality to the text itself and points to the contrast between the text and his introduction. The identification of “plant and words” has been referred to in Monshi’s introduction. Humans and their conversations fill up the beginning and end of The Panchatantra and Kalileh and Demneh and animal talk with each other mostly in the middle sections of the book. This structural pattern is exactly followed in The Panchatantra, but in Kalileh and Demneh small variations can sometimes be seen. At the beginning of the main text, humans have a substantial presence and it seems that because of their lack of wisdom they suffer a symbolic death and metamorphose into animals. At the end of the text, after gaining wisdom, they regain their human form and become immortal. The introductions to Kalileh and Demneh mainly point to wise words and immortality. Conclusion The fundamental opposition in this book as well as in the introductions to it is between mortality and immortality. Immortality is symbolically associated with the immortalizing plant. At a different level, the plant of immortality symbolizes wisdom, as opposed to ignorance, which in Indian thinking saves humans from the ‘samsara’ cycle and makes them immortal. Kalileh and Demneh is the story of a journey starting with a human conversation about wisdom. There is struggle between the main text and the introductions, in which the introductions try to connect to the main texts so that they are no longer marginalized. Select Bibliography Allen, G. 1380 [2001]. Intertextuality. P. Yazdanjou. Tehran: Markaz. Bokhari, M. 1369 [1990]. Dastan-ha-ye Bidpay. M. Natel Khanlari and M. Roshan (eds.). Tehran: Kharazmi De Blois, F. 1382 [2003]. Borzouyeh Tabib va Mansha’e Kalileh va Demneh. S. Sadjadi (trans.). Tehran: Tahouri. Eliade, M. 1391 [2011]. Tasavir va Namad-ha. M. K. Mohajeri (trans.). Tehran: Parseh. Kashefi, K. 1336 [1957]. Anwar-i Soheili. Tehran: Amir Kabir. McAfee, N. 1385 [2006]. Julia Kristeva. M. Parsa. Tehran: Markaz. Monshi, N. (trans.). 1384 [2005]. Kalileh va Demneh. Minovi, M. (ed.). Tehran: Amir Kabir. Shekhar, I. 1385 [2006]. Panchatantra. Tehran: Daneshgah-e Tehran. Toufan, M. 1385 [2006]. Zaban, Ast ya Hast. Tehran: Ketab-e Iran. Intending to teach wisdom and relying on the concepts of wisdom, speech and immortality, Kalileh and Demneh seems to have evolved from previous texts. Kalileh and Demneh has so far been translated into different languages, with each translator writing his own introduction to the book. While reproducing the main themes of Kalileh and Demneh, each introduction has encompassed references common in the discourse and language registers of each period to the main text. Employing a descriptive-analytical approach, “mythological symbolism”, and “intertextuality”, the present paper aims to analyze the traces of meaning in Kalileh and Demneh and show how they are reproduced and transferred to the translators’ introductions. To this end, the author describes, analyzes and reviews the introduction sections of various translations of this book in relation to the main text of Kalileh and Demneh. The analysis reveales that, in addition or contrary to the main text, the introductions have tried to find a structural connection with the main text by repeating the traces of meaning of Kalileh and Demneh, and to contribute to its ever-lasting “wisdom”, so that each translation and its introduction has a different interpretation based on the discourse and the language conventions of each period. As a result, each introduction creates a new chain of signifiers, making the introductions an inseparable part of Kalileh and Demneh. Extended Abstract Introduction Kalileh and Demneh has been translated from one language to another and with each translation an introduction has been written for it, bringing about a feeling of eternity. The writers of these introductions and the translators of this book can be viewed as readers who have added something to the text or changed something in it in accordance with the discourses dominating their period. Therefore, the main text, the introductions and the translations can be regarded as a chain of signifiers, forming a kind of fluidity. Thus, a kind of intertextuality can be seen here: the absence of a beginning for the text links it to Indian and Sanskrit mythology and the endlessness of the introductions connects it with the different references and readings of it in Pahlavi, Syriac, Arabic and Persian languages. Theoretical Framework Based on Eliade’s definition of symbolic thinking in mythology, a connection between the realm of mythology and intertextuality can be identified, which is, in a way, similar to the idea of Kristeva in this regard. Methodology The present paper adopts the descriptive-analytical method for the purpose of the study. It also draws on mythological symbolism and intertextuality. Discussion and Analysis Nasrollah Monshi tries to decentralize Kalileh and Demneh and attributes immortality to the text itself and points to the contrast between the text and his introduction. The identification of “plant and words” has been referred to in Monshi’s introduction. Humans and their conversations fill up the beginning and end of The Panchatantra and Kalileh and Demneh and animal talk with each other mostly in the middle sections of the book. This structural pattern is exactly followed in The Panchatantra, but in Kalileh and Demneh small variations can sometimes be seen. At the beginning of the main text, humans have a substantial presence and it seems that because of their lack of wisdom they suffer a symbolic death and metamorphose into animals. At the end of the text, after gaining wisdom, they regain their human form and become immortal. The introductions to Kalileh and Demneh mainly point to wise words and immortality. Conclusion The fundamental opposition in this book as well as in the introductions to it is between mortality and immortality. Immortality is symbolically associated with the immortalizing plant. At a different level, the plant of immortality symbolizes wisdom, as opposed to ignorance, which in Indian thinking saves humans from the ‘samsara’ cycle and makes them immortal. Kalileh and Demneh is the story of a journey starting with a human conversation about wisdom. There is struggle between the main text and the introductions, in which the introductions try to connect to the main texts so that they are no longer marginalized. Select Bibliography Allen, G. 1380 [2001]. Intertextuality. P. Yazdanjou. Tehran: Markaz. Bokhari, M. 1369 [1990]. Dastan-ha-ye Bidpay. M. Natel Khanlari and M. Roshan (eds.). Tehran: Kharazmi De Blois, F. 1382 [2003]. Borzouyeh Tabib va Mansha’e Kalileh va Demneh. S. Sadjadi (trans.). Tehran: Tahouri. Eliade, M. 1391 [2011]. Tasavir va Namad-ha. M. K. Mohajeri (trans.). Tehran: Parseh. Kashefi, K. 1336 [1957]. Anwar-i Soheili. Tehran: Amir Kabir. McAfee, N. 1385 [2006]. Julia Kristeva. M. Parsa. Tehran: Markaz. Monshi, N. (trans.). 1384 [2005]. Kalileh va Demneh. Minovi, M. (ed.). Tehran: Amir Kabir. Shekhar, I. 1385 [2006]. Panchatantra. Tehran: Daneshgah-e Tehran. Toufan, M. 1385 [2006]. Zaban, Ast ya Hast. Tehran: Ketab-e Iran.

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Guilan University Literary Theory and Criticism 2476-7387 6 2 2022 02 20 The Missing Story of Zal’s Death: A Mythological Approach to His Personality and Fate based on Post-Jungian Criticism The Missing Story of Zal’s Death: A Mythological Approach to His Personality and Fate based on Post-Jungian Criticism 239 262 4814 10.22124/naqd.2021.16690.2002 FA Farzad Ghaemi Assistant Professor of Persian Language and Literature, Ferdowsi University of Mashhad, Iran Journal Article 2020 05 29 Post-Jungian criticism is an approach that has continued and developed Jungian criticism. Due to the ambiguity around Zal’s fate in the existing sources, and his reputation for immortality, the present paper has, for the first time, identified the narrative of the death of Zal in a manuscript of Shahnameh, and, then, analyzed the relationship between this new narrative and the myth of Zal in Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh and its sources. Because Zal’s immortality is important in Jungian criticism of this myth, the discovery of the story of Zal’s death is the most important reason for this paper’s Post-Jungian critical approach. The paper shows that archetypal images associated with the myth of Zal represent the character of an ancient shaman. This figure fulfills such functions as magic, mediumship between the nation and their totemic gods, witch doctor, spiritual healer and intuitive knowledge. From a Jungian perspective, the archetypal image of Zal’s personality gave him a complementary (secondary) role in the initiation of the hero (Rostam). But the post-Jungian approach replaces the old archetype of wisdom with the archetype of death and rebirth, and develops the core meaning of the myth of Zal to his initiation on the way to his unity with his totemic ancestor (Simorgh). Extended Abstract Introduction The fate of Zal in Shahnamneh is one of the most ambiguous parts of his story. In his book Ostureh-ye Zal, Mohammad Mokhatari regards Zal as the human manifestation of Zarvan (god of time) and interprets his fate as his immortality, which is one of the most accepted interpretations of this story. Most of the studies so far have come to the same conclusion. The present study challenges this idea and holds that the absence of Zal’s death in the most widely read version of Shahnameh does not necessary mean that this story is missing in other sources of Shahnameh. Regarding his immortality, three different fates can be found for Zal in the sources of Ferdowsi’s era. Theoretical Framework In the present paper, the story of Zal is studied independently and his fate is examined based on some newly emerged documents that challenge the idea of his immortality held by most scholars. Here, the post-Jungian approach is adopted to examine the story of Zal as it enables us to compare this character with the archetype of the old wise man in Jungian psychology. Methodology The missing story of Zal’s death in the older versions of Shahnameh is compared with a new text in the version kept in Berlin Library. The post-Jungian theory is utilized here to analyze the structure of the story of Zal and compare it with the Jungian archetype of the old wise man. Discussion and Analysis In the version of Shahnamen in Berlin Library, after selecting Homay as his successor, Bahman is killed in a fight. In Bahman-nameh, Azarbarzin, Faramarz’s son, accompanies Bahman in this fight but does not help him. But in the new version, he is Zal’s son and kills the dragon and Bahman at the same time in revenge for Farmarz’s murder, and Zal, who is beset by Bahman’s injustice dies in peace as he says prayers after hearing the news. In the archetypal, post-Jungian analysis, Zal is the shaman of a god. His death while saying prayers can be interpreted as the mystical concept of the voluntary death. His death can be related to the archetype of death and rebirth, symbolizing immortality. Conclusion In the Jungian approach, the old wise man is an element that completes individuality, such as the role Zal plays for Rostam. From a post-Jungian perspective, the archetype is based on the plurality of images, most of which in the story of Zal are connected with his role as a shaman. Zal is a medium that, with the help of the symbolic simorgh, protects justice and peace in the world and curbs natural forces. Zal cannot be regarded as the human manifestation of Zarvan, as Kiyoumars, based on older sources, seems to fit this description better. The most important archetype in the analysis of the story of Zal is the archetype of death and rebirth, which is the counterpart for the Jungian old wise man. Select Bibliography Bal’ami, A. 1341 [1962]. Tarikh-e Bal’ami. M. Bahar (eds.). Tehran: Vezarat-e Farhang. Bin Abi-Khayr, I. 1370 [1991]. Bahman-nameh. R. Afifi (ed.). Tehran: Elmi va Farhangi. Dinawari. A. 1364 [1985]. Akhbar al-Taval. M. Mahdavi Damghani (trans.). Tehran: Ney Ferdowsi. A. 1042 A.H. Shahnameh. Berlin: Berlin Library. No. 4252 Ibn Athir. 1965. Al-Kamal fi al-Tarikh. Beirut: Dar ul-Sadir. Ibn Balkhi. 1363 [1984]. Fars-Nameh. G. Le Strage and R. Nicholson (eds.). Tehran: Donya-ye Ketab. Mokhtari, M. 1379 [2000]. Ostoureh-ye Zal. Tehran: Tous. Samuels, A. 2005. Jung and the Post-Jungians. New York Press: Routledge. Tabari, M. 1352 [1973]. Tarikh al-Rusul va al-Muluk. A. Payandeh (trans.). Tehran: Bonyad-e Farhang. Tha’alibi, A. 1368 [1989]. Ghurar Akhbar Muluk Furs va Seyrahum. M. Fazayeli (trans.). Tehran: Qatreh. Post-Jungian criticism is an approach that has continued and developed Jungian criticism. Due to the ambiguity around Zal’s fate in the existing sources, and his reputation for immortality, the present paper has, for the first time, identified the narrative of the death of Zal in a manuscript of Shahnameh, and, then, analyzed the relationship between this new narrative and the myth of Zal in Ferdowsi’s Shahnameh and its sources. Because Zal’s immortality is important in Jungian criticism of this myth, the discovery of the story of Zal’s death is the most important reason for this paper’s Post-Jungian critical approach. The paper shows that archetypal images associated with the myth of Zal represent the character of an ancient shaman. This figure fulfills such functions as magic, mediumship between the nation and their totemic gods, witch doctor, spiritual healer and intuitive knowledge. From a Jungian perspective, the archetypal image of Zal’s personality gave him a complementary (secondary) role in the initiation of the hero (Rostam). But the post-Jungian approach replaces the old archetype of wisdom with the archetype of death and rebirth, and develops the core meaning of the myth of Zal to his initiation on the way to his unity with his totemic ancestor (Simorgh). Extended Abstract Introduction The fate of Zal in Shahnamneh is one of the most ambiguous parts of his story. In his book Ostureh-ye Zal, Mohammad Mokhatari regards Zal as the human manifestation of Zarvan (god of time) and interprets his fate as his immortality, which is one of the most accepted interpretations of this story. Most of the studies so far have come to the same conclusion. The present study challenges this idea and holds that the absence of Zal’s death in the most widely read version of Shahnameh does not necessary mean that this story is missing in other sources of Shahnameh. Regarding his immortality, three different fates can be found for Zal in the sources of Ferdowsi’s era. Theoretical Framework In the present paper, the story of Zal is studied independently and his fate is examined based on some newly emerged documents that challenge the idea of his immortality held by most scholars. Here, the post-Jungian approach is adopted to examine the story of Zal as it enables us to compare this character with the archetype of the old wise man in Jungian psychology. Methodology The missing story of Zal’s death in the older versions of Shahnameh is compared with a new text in the version kept in Berlin Library. The post-Jungian theory is utilized here to analyze the structure of the story of Zal and compare it with the Jungian archetype of the old wise man. Discussion and Analysis In the version of Shahnamen in Berlin Library, after selecting Homay as his successor, Bahman is killed in a fight. In Bahman-nameh, Azarbarzin, Faramarz’s son, accompanies Bahman in this fight but does not help him. But in the new version, he is Zal’s son and kills the dragon and Bahman at the same time in revenge for Farmarz’s murder, and Zal, who is beset by Bahman’s injustice dies in peace as he says prayers after hearing the news. In the archetypal, post-Jungian analysis, Zal is the shaman of a god. His death while saying prayers can be interpreted as the mystical concept of the voluntary death. His death can be related to the archetype of death and rebirth, symbolizing immortality. Conclusion In the Jungian approach, the old wise man is an element that completes individuality, such as the role Zal plays for Rostam. From a post-Jungian perspective, the archetype is based on the plurality of images, most of which in the story of Zal are connected with his role as a shaman. Zal is a medium that, with the help of the symbolic simorgh, protects justice and peace in the world and curbs natural forces. Zal cannot be regarded as the human manifestation of Zarvan, as Kiyoumars, based on older sources, seems to fit this description better. The most important archetype in the analysis of the story of Zal is the archetype of death and rebirth, which is the counterpart for the Jungian old wise man. Select Bibliography Bal’ami, A. 1341 [1962]. Tarikh-e Bal’ami. M. Bahar (eds.). Tehran: Vezarat-e Farhang. Bin Abi-Khayr, I. 1370 [1991]. Bahman-nameh. R. Afifi (ed.). Tehran: Elmi va Farhangi. Dinawari. A. 1364 [1985]. Akhbar al-Taval. M. Mahdavi Damghani (trans.). Tehran: Ney Ferdowsi. A. 1042 A.H. Shahnameh. Berlin: Berlin Library. No. 4252 Ibn Athir. 1965. Al-Kamal fi al-Tarikh. Beirut: Dar ul-Sadir. Ibn Balkhi. 1363 [1984]. Fars-Nameh. G. Le Strage and R. Nicholson (eds.). Tehran: Donya-ye Ketab. Mokhtari, M. 1379 [2000]. Ostoureh-ye Zal. Tehran: Tous. Samuels, A. 2005. Jung and the Post-Jungians. New York Press: Routledge. Tabari, M. 1352 [1973]. Tarikh al-Rusul va al-Muluk. A. Payandeh (trans.). Tehran: Bonyad-e Farhang. Tha’alibi, A. 1368 [1989]. Ghurar Akhbar Muluk Furs va Seyrahum. M. Fazayeli (trans.). Tehran: Qatreh.

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Guilan University Literary Theory and Criticism 2476-7387 6 2 2022 02 20 Hélène Cixous’s Écriture féminine, from Illusion to Reality: A Critical Examination of the Reception of Her Theory in Selected Persian Theoretical Studies Hélène Cixous’s Écriture féminine, from Illusion to Reality: A Critical Examination of the Reception of Her Theory in Selected Persian Theoretical Studies 263 293 4853 10.22124/naqd.2021.17960.2109 FA Farshid Nowrouzi Roshnavand Assistant Professor of English Language and Literature, University of Mazandaran, Babolsar, Iran Mohammad Ghaffary Assistant Professor of English Language and Literature, University of Arak, Iran Journal Article 2020 10 18 As feminist movements gained momentum in the second half of the twentieth century, many literary theorists set out to address the possibility and quality of feminine writing. One of them was Hélène Cixous, the French critic who introduced the theory of écriture féminine in her classic paper “The Laugh of the Medusa,” causing a lot of controversy in Western academic circles. In Iran, too, many researchers have dealt with écriture féminine to analyze it from literary and socio-moral perspectives. Nonetheless, for certain reasons, including the absence of a complete Persian translation of “The Laugh of the Medusa,” many studies conducted by Iranian researchers suffer from ideologically-laden or inaccurate readings of Cixous’s theory. The present study launches a critical examination of one of the most frequently read Persian articles on écriture féminine to identify certain established stereotypes in related theoretical Persian studies. The paper, then, attempts to resolve the ambiguities about écriture féminine within the context of Poststructuralist Feminism and by citing Cixous’s own words. Thus, the questions tackled by the present study are how écriture féminine has been received in theoretical Persian studies and whether these receptions have been accurate. In so doing, the study first provides a brief explanation of the main themes of Cixous’s paper and, then, the selected theoretical Persian studies are critiqued. The findings demonstrate that, contrary to conventional suppositions, not only is écriture féminine not limited to the writings of female authors, but it does not necessarily reject any such socio-moral institutions as marriage, pregnancy, and motherhood, either. Extended Abstract Introduction One of Cixous’s most important theories is her theory of écriture féminine which has been discussed and elaborated on for years. The present study seeks to find out how the theory of écriture feminine has been received in theoretical research studies in Iran and how accurate and comprehensive these receptions have been. To answer these questions, first, the main components of her theory are explained based on her essay “The Laugh of the Medusa” and, then, theoretical studies on this concept are examined. Theoretical Framework The present study draws upon Cixous’s theory of écriture féminine. Cixous finds women’s body a great source of plurality and polyphony and believes that capacities exclusive to women, such as pregnancy and motherhood can make possible establishing a special form of relationship with the other, which is represented in writing in the form of fluidity and endlessness. The écriture féminine Cisoux has in mind neither suppresses nor sets limitations. As a poststructuralist feminist, she focuses on historical binaries such as ‘man/woman’ and ‘self/other’ and tries to subvert the patriarchal social and discursive system. Methodology The present study aims to examine the reception of écriture feminine in Persian theoretical studies on literature. The study mainly focuses on examining Qodratollah Taheri’s criticism of the theory of écriture feminine based on the essay “The Laugh of the Medusa.” Discussion and Analysis In écriture féminine, the adjective ‘féminine’, unlike the interpretations made in most Persian theoretical studies, does not merely cover the female gender. In other words, Cisoux believes that men can get involved in écriture feminine as long as they consciously and actively resist the naturalizing norms of society so that they liberate themselves from the network of masculine social contracts. In the article “The Laugh of the Medusa,” the metaphorical aspect of écriture feminine has been emphasized. According to Cisoux, femininity and masculinity are fluid concepts and gender alone cannot determine femininity or masculinity. Gender differences, to Cixous, are fictional and rather than such distinctions, the representation of gender in society, esp. in writing, is of importance to her. In other words, gender and how it is constructed should be examined rather than whether the writer is a woman or a man. Conclusion In the present paper, we argued that since the essay “The Laugh of the Medusa” and other major works by Cixous have not been fully translated into Persian, many Iranian researchers have had an inaccurate, fallacious or ideological reception of Cixous’s feminist theory. An example of such a reception is Taheri’s article which we have examined in the present paper. We studied the common clichés and problems with Persian theoretical studies on the theory of écriture féminine, and also showed that this theory is neither exclusive to female writers nor opposes common social values and institutions such as marriage, pregnancy and motherhood. Select Bibliography Baradaran, K. 1394 [2005]. Neveshtar-e Zananeh: Bedaheh-Gouyi dar Meh. Tehran: Rowzaneh. Barekat, B. 1396 [2017]. “Zananegi-e Neveshtar: Dibacheh-i bar Ravesh-shenasi-e Nesbat-e Zaban va Jensiyat.” Zaban-e Farsi va Gouyesh-ha-ye Irani 2/1: 23-39. Cixous, H. 1976. “The Laugh of the Medusa.” K. Cohen and P. Cohen (trans.). Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 1/4: 875-93. Cixous, H. 1398 [2019]. Se Gam bar Nardeban-e Neveshtar. M. Tirmahi (trans.). Tehran: Nahid. Ghaffari, M. 1396 [2017]. “Barresi-e Tatbiqi-e do Rouykard-e Tahlili va Oroupayi dar Falsafeh-ye Adabyat.” Naqd-e Adabi 10/38: 20-40. Jones, A. R. 1981. “Writing the Body: Toward an Understanding of l’écriture feminine.” Feminist Studies 7/2: 247-63. Paknia, M. va Mardiha, M. 1396 [2017]. Saytareh-ye Jens. Tehran: Ney. Rabine, L. W. 1988. “Écriture féminine as Metaphor.” Cultural Critique 8: 19-44. Seraj, S. 1394 [2015]. Gofteman-e Zananeh: Ravand-e Takvin-e Gofteman-e Zananeh dar Asar-e Nevisandehgan-e Zan-e Irani. Tehran: Rowshangaran va Motale’at-e Zanan. Taheri, Q. 1388 [2009]. “Zaban va Neveshtar-e Zananeh, Vaqe’yat ya Tavahom?” Zaban va Adab-e Parsi 42: 87-107. As feminist movements gained momentum in the second half of the twentieth century, many literary theorists set out to address the possibility and quality of feminine writing. One of them was Hélène Cixous, the French critic who introduced the theory of écriture féminine in her classic paper “The Laugh of the Medusa,” causing a lot of controversy in Western academic circles. In Iran, too, many researchers have dealt with écriture féminine to analyze it from literary and socio-moral perspectives. Nonetheless, for certain reasons, including the absence of a complete Persian translation of “The Laugh of the Medusa,” many studies conducted by Iranian researchers suffer from ideologically-laden or inaccurate readings of Cixous’s theory. The present study launches a critical examination of one of the most frequently read Persian articles on écriture féminine to identify certain established stereotypes in related theoretical Persian studies. The paper, then, attempts to resolve the ambiguities about écriture féminine within the context of Poststructuralist Feminism and by citing Cixous’s own words. Thus, the questions tackled by the present study are how écriture féminine has been received in theoretical Persian studies and whether these receptions have been accurate. In so doing, the study first provides a brief explanation of the main themes of Cixous’s paper and, then, the selected theoretical Persian studies are critiqued. The findings demonstrate that, contrary to conventional suppositions, not only is écriture féminine not limited to the writings of female authors, but it does not necessarily reject any such socio-moral institutions as marriage, pregnancy, and motherhood, either. Extended Abstract Introduction One of Cixous’s most important theories is her theory of écriture féminine which has been discussed and elaborated on for years. The present study seeks to find out how the theory of écriture feminine has been received in theoretical research studies in Iran and how accurate and comprehensive these receptions have been. To answer these questions, first, the main components of her theory are explained based on her essay “The Laugh of the Medusa” and, then, theoretical studies on this concept are examined. Theoretical Framework The present study draws upon Cixous’s theory of écriture féminine. Cixous finds women’s body a great source of plurality and polyphony and believes that capacities exclusive to women, such as pregnancy and motherhood can make possible establishing a special form of relationship with the other, which is represented in writing in the form of fluidity and endlessness. The écriture féminine Cisoux has in mind neither suppresses nor sets limitations. As a poststructuralist feminist, she focuses on historical binaries such as ‘man/woman’ and ‘self/other’ and tries to subvert the patriarchal social and discursive system. Methodology The present study aims to examine the reception of écriture feminine in Persian theoretical studies on literature. The study mainly focuses on examining Qodratollah Taheri’s criticism of the theory of écriture feminine based on the essay “The Laugh of the Medusa.” Discussion and Analysis In écriture féminine, the adjective ‘féminine’, unlike the interpretations made in most Persian theoretical studies, does not merely cover the female gender. In other words, Cisoux believes that men can get involved in écriture feminine as long as they consciously and actively resist the naturalizing norms of society so that they liberate themselves from the network of masculine social contracts. In the article “The Laugh of the Medusa,” the metaphorical aspect of écriture feminine has been emphasized. According to Cisoux, femininity and masculinity are fluid concepts and gender alone cannot determine femininity or masculinity. Gender differences, to Cixous, are fictional and rather than such distinctions, the representation of gender in society, esp. in writing, is of importance to her. In other words, gender and how it is constructed should be examined rather than whether the writer is a woman or a man. Conclusion In the present paper, we argued that since the essay “The Laugh of the Medusa” and other major works by Cixous have not been fully translated into Persian, many Iranian researchers have had an inaccurate, fallacious or ideological reception of Cixous’s feminist theory. An example of such a reception is Taheri’s article which we have examined in the present paper. We studied the common clichés and problems with Persian theoretical studies on the theory of écriture féminine, and also showed that this theory is neither exclusive to female writers nor opposes common social values and institutions such as marriage, pregnancy and motherhood. Select Bibliography Baradaran, K. 1394 [2005]. Neveshtar-e Zananeh: Bedaheh-Gouyi dar Meh. Tehran: Rowzaneh. Barekat, B. 1396 [2017]. “Zananegi-e Neveshtar: Dibacheh-i bar Ravesh-shenasi-e Nesbat-e Zaban va Jensiyat.” Zaban-e Farsi va Gouyesh-ha-ye Irani 2/1: 23-39. Cixous, H. 1976. “The Laugh of the Medusa.” K. Cohen and P. Cohen (trans.). Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society 1/4: 875-93. Cixous, H. 1398 [2019]. Se Gam bar Nardeban-e Neveshtar. M. Tirmahi (trans.). Tehran: Nahid. Ghaffari, M. 1396 [2017]. “Barresi-e Tatbiqi-e do Rouykard-e Tahlili va Oroupayi dar Falsafeh-ye Adabyat.” Naqd-e Adabi 10/38: 20-40. Jones, A. R. 1981. “Writing the Body: Toward an Understanding of l’écriture feminine.” Feminist Studies 7/2: 247-63. Paknia, M. va Mardiha, M. 1396 [2017]. Saytareh-ye Jens. Tehran: Ney. Rabine, L. W. 1988. “Écriture féminine as Metaphor.” Cultural Critique 8: 19-44. Seraj, S. 1394 [2015]. Gofteman-e Zananeh: Ravand-e Takvin-e Gofteman-e Zananeh dar Asar-e Nevisandehgan-e Zan-e Irani. Tehran: Rowshangaran va Motale’at-e Zanan. Taheri, Q. 1388 [2009]. “Zaban va Neveshtar-e Zananeh, Vaqe’yat ya Tavahom?” Zaban va Adab-e Parsi 42: 87-107.

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